Evolution of poroelastic properties and permeability in damaged sandstone

This paper is devoted to experimental investigation of mechanical behavior, poroelastic properties and permeability in saturated sandstone. The emphasis is to study the evolution of Biot’s coefficients and permeability with the growth of microcracks. Basic mechanical responses are first investigated through triaxial compression tests, showing nonlinear stress–strain relations, volumetric dilatancy, pressure sensitivity, elastic modulus degradation and induced anisotropy. Original tests are then performed for the determination of Biot’s coefficients in the axial and radial directions at different levels of stress. It is shown that the evolution of Biot’s coefficient is clearly anisotropic in nature due to the oriented closure of initial microcracks and growth of induced microcracks. The rock permeability in axial direction is also measured for different values of stress; it decreases in the first stage with the closure of microcracks and then progressively increases due to the opening of induced microcracks. However, the permeability significantly increases only when the coalescence of microcracks occurs.     

砂岩孔隙弹性特性的试验研究

 简述了Biot 孔隙弹性理论和孔隙弹性参数, 利用“不套封”加压试验、围压下的波速测量及“等质量变容变压”试验, 分别测试了4 块砂岩的骨架材料体积模量、“排水”体积模量和不同压力下的癸烷模量; 复合介质有效模量可用“等效介质理论”计算; Biot 系数静态值大于其动态值, 二者均与孔隙度有关, 并随围压的增大而减小, 建立了Biot系数的预测模型; 岩石孔隙弹性特性在油气识别、地应力计算及破裂压力预测等方面具有重要影响。     

Biot理论的唯象修正对P波特性的影响

将Debye模型的复模量引入Biot方程后,在一维条件下讨论P波的传播特性。无论在频率谱或温度谱上都出现了热弛豫衰减峰和Biot衰减峰。在频率谱上,两峰随着温度的升高,低频段弛豫峰向高频方向移动,高频段的Biot峰向低频方向移动;在温度谱上,随着频率的提高,低温段的弛豫峰向高温方向移动,高温段的Biot峰向低温方向移动。由于热驰豫和Biot两种机制的作用导致波速在频率谱上随频率增高波速增大,并在较高温度时随频率增高出现两个拐点。在温度谱上随温度升高波速下降后又上升。该结果已被部分实验证实,并较好地从理论上解释了前人的实验结果。     

基于Tight gas致密砂岩储层渗透率的有效应力特性研究

 Tight gas是一种非传统新型能源,其储层通常为砂岩储层,具有很低的孔隙率(＜10%)和渗透率(＜0.1 mD)。合理确定Tight gas储层岩石的有效应力,了解其储藏动态,为制定和调整开发方案及实施综合治理提供依据。研究表明,针对土提出的有效应力原理对于岩石,特别是储油或储气岩石不再适用。在其基础上,提出改进的有效应力原理,即 ,其中? 称为Biot系数(又称有效应力系数)。因此,如何确定Tight gas 储层岩石的Biot系数,成为合理确定有效应力的关键。在此研究中,通过测定多组不同外部控制压力和孔隙压力下岩石的渗透率,对试验结果用Cross-plotting方法得到Tight gas致密砂岩储层的Biot系数。结果表明：(1) Tight gas 储层砂岩具有低渗透率,其数量级为0.010～0.001 mD,而且相同控制压力下,渗透率与孔隙压力近似成指数函数关系;(2) Biot系数随渗透率的变化而变化,渗透率越小,Biot系数越小,相反,渗透率越大,Biot系数也越大;(3) 试验所取岩样的平均Biot系数分别为0.509和0.612。     

Determination and applications of rock quality designation(RQD)

Characterization of rock masses and evaluation of their mechanical properties are important and challenging tasks in rock mechanics and rock engineering.Since in many cases rock quality designation(RQD)is the only rock mass classification index available,this paper outlines the key aspects on determination of RQD and evaluates the empirical methods based on RQD for determining the deformation modulus and unconfined compressive strength of rock masses.First,various methods for determining RQD are presented and the effects of different factors on determination of RQD are highlighted.Then,the empirical methods based on RQD for determining the deformation modulus and unconfined compressive strength of rock masses are briefly reviewed.Finally,the empirical methods based on RQD are used to determine the deformation modulus and unconfined compressive strength of rock masses at five different sites including 13 cases,and the results are compared with those obtained by other empirical methods based on rock mass classification indices such as rock mass rating(RMR),Q-system(Q) and geological strength index(GSI).It is shown that the empirical methods based on RQD tend to give deformation modulus values close to the lower bound(conservative) and unconfined compressive strength values in the middle of the corresponding values from different empirical methods based on RMR,Q and GSI.The empirical methods based on RQD provide a convenient way for estimating the mechanical properties of rock masses but,whenever possible,they should be used together with other empirical methods based on RMR,Q and GSI.     

变围压条件下致密砂岩力学性质实验研究

 储层有效应力改变条件下的岩石力学性质认识对气藏高效开发十分重要，但理想的实验方法及结果较少。为研究气藏开发过程有效应力不断增加时致密砂岩力学性质的变化规律，在GCTS–RTR–1000型三轴岩石测试系统上进行了有效应力不断增加条件下三轴压缩变形实验。实验结果表明，随着围压的增加致密砂岩变形模量和泊松比不断增加。与常规恒定净围压下力学实验对比，在同一净围压下，围压不断增加时的变形模量要高于恒定围压下的变形模量、围压不断增加条件下测得的泊松比则较恒定围压下测得的泊松比低。     

Assessment of deformation modulus of weak rock masses from pressuremeter tests and seismic surveys

The deformation modulus of intact rock can be determined through standardized laboratory tests for heavily jointed rock masses but this is very difficult, while in situ tests are time-consuming and expensive. In this study, the deformation modulus of selected heavily jointed, sheared and/or blocky, weathered, weak greywacke, andesite and claystone were assessed, based on pressuremeter tests, geo-engineering characterization and seismic surveys. Empirical equations based on GSI and RMR values are proposed to indirectly estimate the deformation modulus of the greywackes. For the andesites, the spacing of the discontinuities is greater than the length of the pressuremeter probe hence the intact rather than rock mass deformation modulus is obtained. The pressuremeter test results from the claystones could not be correlated with the field data; the relationship between the ratio of rock mass modulus to intact rock modulus and RQD appears to give a better estimation of the deformation modulus.      

三次及双三次样条函数应用于土的非线性分析

本文论述应用三次样条函数及双三次样条函数求变形模量E及泊松比υ的方法.并应用于大塘埇水坠坝比奥固结课题有限元的非线性分析中,计算与实测相比,颇为近似。+     

蓝田花岗岩冲击压缩特性的实验研究

岩石在高应变率下的动力学性能研究在国防和民用建设中具有重要意义。在57mm气炮上利用电磁法研究了蓝田花岗岩冲击压缩特性。采用正向冲击法和反向冲击法两种实验构形，冲击压力范围为78MPa～5．2GPa。蓝田花岗岩声学特性和动力学特性与其他花岗岩有较大差别，其Hugoniot曲线在约0.47GPa时有明显的拐折，这与球形被实验的相应结果基本一致。由于蓝田花岗岩具有明显的铁磁效应，在冲击波作用下激发强电磁场，这会严重干扰测量波形。反向冲击法可以有效地减少这种干扰，其在研究岩石类特殊材料的冲击压缩特性时有明显的优点。     

岩石试样的杨氏模量与围压的关系

岩石种类繁多、变形历史复杂，围压对杨氏模量的影响规律尚缺乏明确的结论。由于岩样轴向压缩的应力-应变曲线并非直线，杨氏模量的数值依赖于确定方法。与割线模量相比，平均模量是应力-应变曲线中近似直线部分的斜率，受试验条件的影响较小。表示了应力与应变之间的变化关系。利用伺服试验机和文献上的试验结果得到了不同岩石的平均模量与围压的关系，宏观均匀致密的岩样或仅含有局部缺陷的岩样，杨氏模量与围压无关，从风化岩石和软弱岩石钻孔取芯得到的岩样，通常含有分布的裂隙，增大围压可以增大隙裂面之间的摩擦力，抑制剪切滑移的产生，从而提高杨氏模量，杨氏模量随围压的变化体现了岩样内部的损伤状态。     

饱和砂岩在疲劳载荷作用下的黏弹性性质

 采用由法国引进的Metravib热机械分析仪,用正弦波加载方式,模拟地震波(行波)的传播,试验时固定静载为100 N,正弦波动载荷恒为60 N,将总载荷控制在屈服点以下;在温度为－50 ℃～125 ℃、升温速率保持在1 ℃/min、频率为5～90 Hz的条件下,对饱和泵油长石砂岩、彭山砂岩圆柱形样品进行单轴循环加载试验,求取饱和泵油长石砂岩和彭山砂岩波的能量衰减、虚模量、杨氏模量、弹性波速度与温度和频率的关系。以此研究饱和多孔岩石中行波的能量衰减和虚模量随温度的变化规律,取得行波随频率增高饱和多孔岩石的能量衰减峰和虚模量峰的峰位向高温方向移动、能量衰减峰和虚模量峰的强度增大的热激活弛豫规律,这种行波规律也是热激活弛豫机制引起。同时,获得饱和岩石的杨氏模量和弹性波速度对温度和频率的动态响应。杨氏模量和弹性波波速随温度升高而下降,随频率增高而增大,具有较明显的频散效应,随温度升高频散效应有减弱的趋势,取得与低频共振的驻波试验同样的热激活弛豫规律,说明热激活弛豫规律在饱和多孔岩石中具有一定的普适性。其结果是研究时温等效的试验和理论基础;同时该研究结果对岩石物理理论模型研究具有很好的指导意义,对现场地震波和声波测试结果和地震勘探资料的解释具有现实意义。     

水岩化学作用对砂岩力学特性影响的试验研究

为研究水岩化学作用对砂岩力学特性的影响,将桃源水电站的红砂岩加工成标准圆柱形试样,对其进行不同化学溶液作用下的腐蚀试验,获得红砂岩化学腐蚀过程中相对质量变化规律,同时测量记录各化学溶液pH值。利用岩石三轴测试系统对各种化学溶液浸泡后的红砂岩进行三轴压缩试验,探讨不同的化学溶液对红砂岩力学特性的腐蚀效应,获得水化学溶液对红砂岩强度和变形特性的影响规律。结果表明,试样质量的变化和化学溶液性质有关,试样相对质量变化存在明显差异。pH=13的化学溶液pH值随时间的增长有小幅度下降,其余化学溶液pH值随时间增长均趋于弱碱性(pH≈7.9)。根据溶液pH值的变化、试样相对质量的变化,分析化学溶液对岩石的腐蚀程度。三轴压缩试验结果表明,不同化学溶液对红砂岩力学性质的影响不同。离子成分及pH值均对红砂岩力学特性产生较大影响,各种化学溶液腐蚀后岩石的峰值强度、残余强度、弹性模量均有不同程度的下降。室内试验的结果可为构建红砂岩化学腐蚀条件下本构模型提供重要的试验资料。     

Estimation of rock mass deformation modulus using variations in transmissivity and RQD with depth

Discontinuity normal stiffness and deformation modulus of large scale rock masses are very difficult to determine. A method for estimation of discontinuity normal stiffness based on the decrease in transmissivity with depth has been proposed by the authors in a former paper. In the current study, the method is further developed by accounting for the changes in both discontinuity aperture and frequency with depth, which are key factors that cause the transmissivity to decrease with depth. The discontinuity frequency can be estimated from RQD measurements, which are readily available in most geotechnical investigations. The transmissivity data from packer tests are usually available in geotechnical investigations for hydropower plants. For a rock mass in a dam site mainly controlled by lithostatic stress, based on transmissivity and RQD data at different depths, the change in discontinuity aperture with depth can be linked to the change in aperture with stress, which defines the normal stiffness of discontinuities. In the case study, the discontinuity normal stiffness is successfully estimated by using transmissivity and RQD data, and the result shows that the normal stiffness increases with stress (depth) and the rate of normal stiffness versus stress (depth) decreases with stress (depth), which is consistent with experimental studies. The estimated normal stiffness has been utilized to calculate the rock mass deformation modulus using an equivalent model. The result of deformation modulus by the proposed method is close to that obtained by using in situ measurements, as well as by using empirical models relating RQD to deformation modulus.     

A new estimation method and an anisotropy index for the deformation modulus of jointed rock masses

The deformation modulus of a rock mass is an important parameter to describe its mechanical behavior.In this study,an analytical method is developed to determine the deformation modulus of jointed rock masses,which considers the mechanical properties of intact rocks and joints based on the superposition principle.Due to incorporating the variations in the orientations and sizes of joint sets,the proposed method is applicable to the rock mass with persistent and parallel joints as well as that with nonpersistent and nonparallel joints.In addition,an anisotropy index AIdmfor the deformation modulus is defined to quantitatively describe the anisotropy of rock masses.The range of AIdmis from 0 to 1,and the more anisotropic the rock mass is,the larger the value of AIdmwill be.To evaluate the proposed method,20 groups of numerical experiments are conducted with the universal distinct element code(UDEC).For each experimental group,the deformation modulus in 24 directions are obtained by UDEC(numerical value)and the proposed method(predicted value),and then the mean error rates are calculated.Note that the mean error rate is the mean value of the error rates of the deformation modulus in 24 directions,where for each direction,the error rate is equal to the ratio of numerical value minus predicted value to the numerical value.The results show that(i)for different experimental groups,the mean error rates vary between 5.06%and 22.03%;(ii)the error rates for the discrete fracture networks(DFNs)with two sets of joints are at the same level as those with one set of joints;and(iii)therefore,the proposed method for estimating the deformation modulus of jointed rock masses is valid.     

含夹层盐岩储气库气体渗透规律研究

 盐岩储气库气体密封性能是储气库的一项重要技术和安全指标,层状盐岩储气库极可能会使天然气沿着岩层逃逸,造成天然气的外部渗漏。含软弱夹层盐岩储气库的气体渗透机制十分复杂,含软弱夹层的渗流力学模型与数值计算方法是解决评估储气库气体渗透范围的关键。考虑夹层与盐岩层之间存在层面,假设软弱夹层和盐岩为多孔介质,建立了等效边界气体渗流模型,该模型既克服了等效介质模型不能正确反映层理面渗流问题,又克服了双孔双渗裂隙介质模型计算量大的缺点。结合金坛储气库建设,数值仿真了储气库在注–采气不同循环压力作用下5 a内围岩气体压力分布;研究了软弱夹层与盐岩的层理面渗透系数、采气速率和腔体群不同时注–采气等工况对储库围岩气体压力分布的影响。研究结果表明：层理面渗透系数对储气库压力分布有着至关重要的影响,溶腔群的采气速率和注–采方法对相邻矿柱的气体压力分布影响明显。研究结果为含夹层废弃盐腔储气库的设计和合理注采参数的确定提供了科学依据。     

Empirical equations between characteristic impedance and mechanical properties of rocks

Based on a great number of experimental data on various mechanical properties of rock in the literature, six empirical equations between the characteristic impedance (product of density and P-wave velocity) and mechanical properties of rock are proposed. These properties include uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength, mode I fracture toughness, Young's modulus, and Poisson's ratio. These empirical equations show that the values of the aforementioned properties increase with increase in characteristic impedance. It also implies that the characteristic impedance of rock may be considered as an index to represent the main properties of rock. In this sense, it is possible to consider using characteristic impedance to classify rock masses for studies in the future.     

Rock salt dilatancy boundary from combined acoustic emission and triaxial compression tests

This paper presents an experimental investigation of rock salt dilatancy boundary based on combined acoustic emission and triaxial compression tests carried out on the rock salt samples from the Asse Salt Mine, Germany. The experimental results were evaluated to determine the dilatancy boundary under specified stress, stress loading rate and pore pressure. Pore volume changes caused by deviatoric stresses were measured during triaxial compression tests. The dilatancy boundary was then determined from the maximum compression on a stress–strain curve which separates the compression and dilatancy regions. Variations in acoustic emissions that occur during microcrack development under triaxial compression were recorded with ten sensors mounted on the outer surface of the cylindrical samples. A spontaneous increase observed in the cumulative number of acoustic events is consistent with the dilatancy boundary determined from the minimum pore volume. It is confirmed that the dilatancy boundary depends on both stress loading rate and pore pressure. The dilatancy boundary slightly decreases with increasing the loading rate, but increases with increasing the minor normal stress. High pore pressures accelerate the dilatancy. A Biot coefficient of 0.25 for Asse rock salt was determined from the dilatancy boundary. An analysis of two-dimensional (2D) fractal dimensions determined for several samples shows that the samples with smaller dimensions have slightly higher dilatancy boundaries. The dilatancy boundary values of Asse rock salt are lower than those reported for crystalline rocks, although both rock types show similar dilatancy behaviour.     

Nonlinear model characterizing stress-strain relationship and permeability change of contact compression fracture at closing stage

Understanding the stress-strain relationship and permeability change for contact compression fracture at closing stage has been a hot issue for a long time.Previous investigations of this topic were mainly focused on experimental tests;however,theoretical approaches were rarely reported.Based on this,this paper focuses on the contact fracture at closing stage when rock is uniaxially loaded,and then a theoretical model is proposed.Based on the change of fracture elasticity modulus,it shows that as crack apertures are gradually reduced in the loading process,the permeability of rock sample will decrease progressively.This scenario shows that theoretical computation matches well with the experimental results.Finally,the effects of ratio of sample size to fracture aperture(n).pore pressure(P),and initial aperture(b) on stress-strain relationship and permeability change for contact compression fracture at closing stage are analyzed.     

用非强迫共振法研究饱和岩石的黏弹性响应

 通过Metravib热机械分析仪,用正弦振动对岩样进行加载,并以饱和岩石对正弦振动传播的黏弹响应,来模拟地震波在饱和岩石中传播时的黏弹性响应,以获取地震波在饱和岩石中传播时的黏弹行为。试验时固定静载为120 N,正弦波动载荷为80 N;在温度－40 ℃～100 ℃,频率5～400 Hz的范围内,对2种孔隙度的泵油饱和彭山砂岩样品进行单轴循环加载试验,以得到泵油饱和彭山砂岩的衰减、弹性模量、弹性波速度与温度的关系。由此研究饱和多孔岩石在弹性范围内的衰减、杨氏模量和弹性波波速随温度的变化规律。研究结果表明：随频率的增高,饱和多孔岩石的能量衰减峰的峰位向高温方向移动的热激活弛豫规律。利用阻尼衰减机制,解释了随振动频率提高,衰减峰的强度降低的试验结果。这些试验结果与低频共振的驻波试验得到的热激活弛豫规律一致,说明热激活弛豫机制在饱和多孔岩石中具有一定的普适性。与此同时,得到弹性模量和波速随温度升高而逐渐下降的一般规律,以及随频率的增高而增大的频散特性,但是样品的频散效应随温度升高有减弱的趋势。该频率和温度范围的研究结果对岩石理论模型研究具有指导意义,对地震资料的解释具有实用意义。饱和岩石的衰减研究对地震工程和勘探地球物理具有特殊的意义,尤其对勘探地热蒸汽库或天然气库有很好的实用价值。     

柱状节理岩体宏观等效弹性模量尺寸效应研究

以金沙江白鹤滩水电站工程为背景,结合相关的岩石力学试验方法,建立了柱状节理岩体三维离散元模型,对柱状节理岩体进行了三轴压缩试验数值模拟。数值试验研究了六棱柱形柱状节理岩体柱体直径变化、四棱柱形柱状节理岩体柱体边长、节理错距变化对其等效弹性模量的影响。为研究随机柱状节理岩体柱体尺寸对岩体等效弹性模量的影响,提出柱体大对角线长尺寸控制方案,并研究了柱体大对角线长变化对岩体等效弹性模量的影响。通过与现场试验的对比研究,结果表明：随机柱体尺寸控制方案可靠;柱体尺寸的变化对与柱体垂直方向的等效弹性模量影响较大,是主要影响因素;四棱柱形柱状节理岩体错距变化主要对与错距平行的岩体等效弹性模量产生影响,对其它两个方向的等效弹性模量的影响较弱,是次要影响因素。研究结果为工程实践中等效力学参数的确定提供了相关参考。