An experimental study of three response modes in social influence situations.

A test is provided of Willis' conceptual framework, which specifies 3 response modes in a social influence situation. These are referred to as conformity, independence, and anticonformity. An individual can exhibit, over the course of several trials, any combination of independence or net conformity, i.e., conformity minus anticonformity. The object of this experimental demonstration was to manipulate simultaneously a number of independent variables so as to elicit 1 of the 3 basic modes of reacting from each of the 3 experimental groups. Conditions for 1 group were designed to maximize conformity, those of the 2nd to maximize independence, and those of the 3rd to maximize anticonformity. The prediction that these reactions can be brought under experimental control and can be substantially and differentially produced in the laboratory was confirmed. Differences among experimental groups were sizable as measured either by overall differences in independence and net conformity or by movement scores. In the case of the condition designed to maximize independence behavior, the theoretical limit was closely approached. For the conformity and anticonformity groups, the respective limits were less closely approached, but magnitudes of movement towards these limits were larger than in the case of the independence group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of "point" job evaluation systems.

3 raters evaluated a sample of 82 jobs on 17 requirements. The study aim was to determine extent of influence through manipulation or forcing by evaluators. Both forced and unforced conditions were used. 5 factors emerged from the analysis in both conditions, with the 3 predominant factors in each being similar. "Forcing had the effect of increasing the job level variance from 86% in unforced ratings to 98% in forced ratings." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age differences in resistance to peer influence.

Prior research describes the development of susceptibility to peer pressure in adolescence as following an inverted U-shaped curve, increasing during early adolescence, peaking around age 14, and declining thereafter. This pattern, however, is derived mainly from studies that specifically examined peer pressure to engage in antisocial behavior. In the present study, age differences and developmental change in resistance to peer influence were assessed using a new self-report instrument that separates susceptibility to peer pressure from willingness to engage in antisocial activity. Data from four ethnically and socioeconomically diverse samples comprising more than 3,600 males and females between the ages of 10 and 30 were pooled from one longitudinal and two cross-sectional studies. Results show that across all demographic groups, resistance to peer influences increases linearly between ages 14 and 18. In contrast, there is little evidence for growth in this capacity between ages 10 and 14 or between 18 and 30. Middle adolescence is an especially significant period for the development of the capacity to stand up for what one believes and resist the pressures of one's peers to do otherwise. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some nondeprivation variables which influence the "effects" of experimental sensory deprivation.

48 university students similar to those used in experiments on sensory deprivation (SD) were surveyed to determine their knowledge about SD, their acknowledged reasons for volunteering to be in SD experiments, and their previous history of unusual appearing (SD-like) experiences. The responses indicated considerable knowledge of SD, very "active" reasons for volunteering, and a variety of previous unusual appearing experiences. The results are in accord with the hypothesis that some reported effects of SD, particularly self-reported, unusual appearing, subjective experiences, may be strongly influenced by extradeprivation variables which are part of the total experimental situation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental evaluation of the sensitivity of the Empathy Test.

Form A of the Empathy Test was mailed to fifty Fellows each of the Division of Experimental and Clinical and Abnormal Psychology. Thirty-four usable returns were received from the "experimentalists," and 25 from the "clinicians." Assuming that "clinicians" are higher on empathy than "experimentalists," the Empathy Test did not reflect this difference. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental evaluation of traumatic globe rupture

PURPOSE: The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the surgeon's ability to assess various types of globe injury, to determine the force necessary to rupture the globe with these types of injuries, and to determine typical orbital retraction forces used in the clinical setting. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Forty-four enucleated globes from recently killed cows were divided into four equal groups-one uninjured control group, one group with a through-and-through scleral laceration, another group with a subtotal scleral laceration, and the last group with an 18-gauge needle perforation. Twenty-seven boarded or board eligible oral and maxillofacial surgeons were asked to assess one sample from each of the four groups. They were then asked to retract a simulated globe on a custom-fabricated jig to determine clinical retraction forces. Ten globes from each of the four groups were then subjected to forces until rupture on an Instron 8501M mechanical testing unit. Accuracy of the clinical assessment was determined, and means and standard deviations of the retraction forces and globe rupture forces were derived. RESULTS: Through-and-through lacerations were assessed by surgeons with 100% accuracy, subtotal lacerations with 96% accuracy, uninjured globes with 74% accuracy, and perforated globes with 15% accuracy. Globe rupture occurred at 16.72+/-7.87 kg in the control group, 20.36+/-7.87 kg in the perforated group, 15.38+/-6.06 kg in the subtotal laceration group, and 4.94+/-2.56 kg in the through-and-through laceration group. Statistically significant differences (P < .001) were noted between the total laceration group and all other groups. The mean retraction force was 0.35+/-0.47 kg, which was statistically less than the force used in all of the rupture groups (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Severe injuries (through-and-through lacerations) were assessed with 100% accuracy by the clinicians, and less severe injuries with less accuracy. Rupture forces for globes with perforations and subtotal lacerations were no different than for the control group, but substantially less than for the total laceration group. The simulated clinical retraction forces were substantially more than the rupture forces in all of the groups, including the through-and-through laceration group.     

An experimental investigation of group members' perceived influence over leader decisions.

The premise that increased perceived influence over leader-made decisions has positive effects on members' satisfaction and commitment was tested in an experiment. One hundred four participants in ad hoc groups of 4 (plus 1 confederate) gave their opinions about the settlement of a civil lawsuit to the group leader (a confederate), who made the decision on behalf of the group. Feedback provided to the participants by the leader manipulated members' perceived personal influence, and the influence of the group as a whole, over the leader's decision. Perceived personal influence predicted levels of satisfaction, whereas perceptions of group influence were important with respect to commitment to the decision. Results are integrated with recent work on leadership and organizational behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental study of "hypnotic" (auditory and visual) hallucinations.

78 unselected female volunteers were individually pretested on response to direct suggestions designed to evoke auditory and visual hallucinations. In the same experimental session each S was retested on equivalent hallucination suggestions after the administration of 1 of the following 3 experimental treatments, with 26 Ss assigned at random to each treatment: standardized hypnotic induction procedure, brief task motivating instructions, control (no hypnotic induction or task motivating instructions). On the pretests (base level tests), 54% stated that they heard the suggested sounds and 33% reported that they saw the suggested object. Analyses of covariance indicated that: (a) the standardized hypnotic induction procedure and the brief task motivating instructions both facilitated response to the suggestions to hallucinate, (b) the group given the hypnotic induction and the group given task motivating instructions did not differ significantly from each other, and (c) both of these groups were significantly more responsive to the suggestions than the control group. (30 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Friends' influence on adolescents' academic achievement motivation: An experimental study.

To examine the influence of friends on adolescents' motivation to achieve in school, each of 118 8th graders was paired with a close friend. The pairs of friends were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control condition. In the experimental condition, the friends discussed dilemmas that required them to decide between 2 actions reflecting different levels of achievement motivation. In the control condition, friends discussed topics unrelated to school. Before and after the discussions, all adolescents made decisions on the dilemmas independently. The 1st hypothesis was that discussions of the dilemmas would lead to an increase in the similarity of friends' decisions. The 2nd hypothesis was that discussions would lead to shifts toward more extreme decisions. The results supported the 1st hypothesis but not the 2nd. More harmonious discussions involving greater information exchange led to greater changes in decisions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Online persuasion: An examination of gender differences in computer-mediated interpersonal influence.

The purpose of this research was to investigate how computer-mediated communication affects persuasion in dyadic interactions. Two studies compared participants' attitudes after hearing a series of arguments from a same-gender communicator via either e-mail or face-to-face interaction. In Study 1, women showed less message agreement in response to e-mail versus face-to-face messages, whereas men showed no difference between communication modes. Study 2 replicated this finding and examined the impact of prior interaction with the communicator. For women, the condition that provided the least social interaction led to the least message agreement. For men, the condition that provided the most social challenge led to the least message agreement. Results are interpreted in terms of gender differences in interaction style. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental test of the effects of "developmental" vs. "free" discussions on the quality of group decisions.

A "developmental" and a "free" type of discussion leadership were compared with respect to the degree to which they influence the quality and unanimity of group decisions. Small groups of students were asked to make a decision involving the wisdom of promoting a particular employee to a new job. The "high quality" decision was reached about twice as frequently in the "developmental" discussion groups as in the "free" discussion groups, but no significant difference was obtained with respect to group unanimity. The writers believe that these "findings apply only to problems in which emotional involvement is not an important aspect of the problem… with other types of problems the 'free' type of discussion may be more effective… ." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Artifact in the "essence of hypnosis": An evaluation of trance logic.

Assigned 70 female student nurses to 1 of 3 treatment conditions: hypnotic induction, instructions to simulate hypnosis, or imagination control. All Ss were assessed on M. Orne's (see record 1960-05341-001) 2 indexes of trance logic (the transparent and the double hallucination). The imagination controls consistently showed trance logic as often as the hypnotic Ss. Depending upon the stringency of the criterion for hallucination, the simulating Ss showed trance logic less often, as often, or more often than the hypnotic Ss and the imagination controls. In the 2nd phase of the investigation, 6 simulating Ss consistently manifested trance logic as often as 5 highly selected "somnambulistic" hypnotic Ss. Since trance logic was not found to be a discriminating characteristic of hypnotic Ss, investigators who seek the "essence of hypnosis" must now search elsewhere. (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Role assignment and interpersonal influence.

15-minute discussions of the desegregation issue were held by 34 groups of 3 college students, 2 whose attitude scores had reflected nonsegregationist views and a 3rd who was E's accomplice and always expressed segregationist views. "When specific roles were not assigned [in half the groups], the nonaccomplice Ss: (a) had greater confidence in their appraisals of the accomplice's attitudes, (b) indicated greater sociometric preference for one another (rather than for the accomplice) at the conclusion of the discussion period, (c) produced shorter communications, and (d) yielded more to the segregationist arguments expressed by the accomplice. Contrary to expectation, when no roles were assigned, Ss did not indicate less esteem for the accomplice than was the case when roles were assigned." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intertrial effects of immediate self-committal in a continuous social influence situation.

A perceptual task consisting of the judgment of dot numerosity on tachistoscopically presented slides was presented to Ss. Present in the experimental room as each S was being tested was a "role-player" who also made a judgment. In one group the "role-player's" judgment preceded the S's judgment; in another, it followed the S's judgment; and in a third group, the S was required to judge the stimulus both before and after the "role-player." The results show that "once an S has expressed a judgment of a stimulus, he is generally reluctant to change his response to any great degree. The S may still be heavily influenced in the situation, however, the effects of which are reflected in subsequent committal responses." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social influence on opinions and the communication of related content.

In this study an attempt was made to determine the effects of group pressures on opinion. 5 hypotheses were generated, tested, and the results discussed in terms of a theory of social influences on opinions suggested by the data. 34 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Unspoken cultural influence: Exposure to and influence of nonverbal bias.

The authors examined the extent to which nonverbal behavior contributes to culturally shared attitudes and beliefs. In Study 1, especially slim women elicited especially positive nonverbal behaviors in popular television shows. In Study 2, exposure to this nonverbal bias caused women to have especially slim cultural and personal ideals of female beauty and to have especially positive attitudes toward slim women. In Study 3, individual differences in exposure to such nonverbal bias accounted for substantial variance in pro-slim attitudes, anti-fat attitudes, and personal ideals of beauty, even after controlling for several third variables. In Study 4, regional differences in exposure to nonverbal bias accounted for substantial variance in regional unhealthy dieting behaviors, even after controlling for several third variables. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lapse-induced surges in craving influence relapse in adult smokers: An experimental investigation.

Objectives: Nearly all smokers who lapse experience a full-blown relapse, but the mediating mechanisms that contribute to this relationship are not well understood. A better understanding of these mechanisms would help to advance more effective relapse prevention treatments for smokers. The purpose of this study is to experimentally evaluate the effects of a programmed smoking lapse on smoking relapse and the effects of postlapse changes in craving on relapse. Method: Adult smokers (n = 63) who quit smoking with a brief cognitive–behavioral intervention and self-help materials were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions after 48 h of abstinence: No lapse (a no-smoking control/30-min waiting period) or lapse (smoking two cigarettes of their favored brand during a 30-min period). All participants were then followed daily for 14 days. Craving and biochemically verified self-reported abstinence were assessed on each follow-up day. Time (days) to relapse (7 consecutive days of smoking) was the main dependent measure. Results: Results of Cox regression analysis revealed that participants in the lapse condition relapsed more quickly than participants in the no-lapse condition (hazard ratio [HR] = 2.12, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [1.03, 4.35]). These effects were attributable, in part, to episodic increases in craving among participants in the lapse condition only (HR = 12.42, 95% CI =[2.00, 77.1]). Conclusions: Previously abstinent smokers who lapse are at risk for increased cigarette cravings and consequently, full-blown relapse. These results have implications for both cognitive–behavioral treatments for relapse prevention and for medications designed to help smokers manage cravings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Wrapper influence on the perception of freshness in bread.

Following an earlier Purdue study with students this research found comparable results from housewives. "Three conventional type wrappers and three ages of bread in a paired-comparison design were presented to 50 housewives under blinded conditions." Greater freshness was perceived under cellophane conditions. The same differential influence held for one- and two-day-old bread. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some personal and situational determinants of yielding to influence.

Factors associated with acceptance of suggestions were studied using boys and girls in Grades 10, 11, and 12. Higher suggestibility was found in girls, in the lower grades, when the source of the suggestion was high in prestige or if the items were difficult. Results are related to previous experiments in the area of conformity and suggestibility. From Psyc Abstracts 36:02:2GE11P. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory accessibility and probability judgments: An experimental evaluation of the availability heuristic.

Consistent with A. Tversky and D. Kahneman's (1973, 1974) availability heuristic hypothesis, the current study found a negative correlation between recall latency for past events and the perceived future probability of similar events. Furthermore, when the relative accessibility of memories of positive and negative events was experimentally manipulated using the Velten mood-induction procedure, the perceived future probabilities of similar events also changed in a manner consistent with the availability heuristic account. Reductions in recall latencies resulting from the mood manipulations were, as predicted, related to increases in perceived probability, and vice versa. Partial correlations indicated that this association between the observed patterns of changes in recall latencies and probability judgments could not be accounted for by the existence of independent associations between each of these effects and the magnitude of mood change. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)