Conditioning of verbal behavior as a function of awareness, need for social approval, and motivation to receive reinforcement.

This investigation evaluated the effects of awareness, need for social approval, and motivation to receive reinforcement on verbal conditioning. 61 male college students were reinforced with "good" for constructing sentences beginning with "I" or "we." Awareness and reinforcement motivation were assessed by an intensive postconditioning interview; need for social approval was measured by the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability scale. Ss aware of a correct response-reinforcement contingency gave more "I" and "we" sentences than Unaware Ss, who showed no evidence of learning. Aware Ss motivated to receive reinforcement gave more "I" and "we" sentences than unmotivated Aware Ss. Contrary to expectation, need for approval was not related to Ss' reinforcement motivation or performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Fear conditioning, meaning, and belongingness: A selective association analysis.

23 Ss rated the belongingness of pairs of conditionable (photographic slides) and unconditioned (e.g., shock, tone, human scream) stimuli. 40 new Ss were then classically conditioned, using rating-defined high (angry face/scream) and low (landscape/scream) belongingness pairs. Finger-pulse responses to the high-belongingness pairs showed superior acquisition and resistance to extinction. Another 40 Ss were conditioned to compound stimuli: a slide (either landscape or angry face) that was the same over trials, and a yellow or blue background that was the discriminant cue for the unconditioned stimulus (scream). When the angry face (the high-belongingness slide) was the invariant part of the compound, relatively poorer differential pulse-volume and skin-conductance conditioning was observed. Thus, depending on the task, a priori belongingness rendered stimuli selectively conditionable, either enhancing or inhibiting visceral response associations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reversal of performance deficits and perceptual deficits in learned helplessness and depression.

Tested therapeutic implications of the learned helplessness model of depression in 2 experiments with a total of 128 undergraduates. Depression was assessed with the Beck Depression Inventory. Nondepressed Ss receiving inescapable noise and depressed/no-noise Ss later showed noise escape deficits in a shuttlebox and perceptions of response-reinforcement independence when compared with nondepressed/no-noise Ss. Experience with solvable discrimination problems reversed the escape deficits and perceptions of response-reinforcement independence associated with both inescapability and depression. Results support the learned helplessness model of depression, which claims (a) that uncontrollable events induce distorted perceptions of response-reinforcement independence in nondepressed people which cause performance deficits parallel to those found in naturally occurring depression, and (b) that experience with controllable events reverses the perceptions of response-reinforcement independence and the performance deficits associated with both helplessness and depression. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Some relationships between GSR conditioning and judgments of anxiety.

"The aim of the present study was to investigate… the relationship between GSR conditioning and various clinical judgments of anxiety in a sample of psychiatric patients conditioned under presumably optimal procedures… . anxiety groups ranked on the basis of admission psychological data… were found to be significantly different in conditionability." This was not so with Ss ranked via the Taylor MA scale, and "anxiety groups revealed no significant differences in extinction." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concrete operational thinking, diagnosis, and psychopathology in hospitalized schizophrenics.

Assessed the hypothesis that performance on cognitive tests would differentiate among various patient subgroups classified according to diagnosis and chronicity. 66 acute and chronic male schizophrenic inpatients were administered tests of conservation, class inclusion, and geometric drawing. Results show that acute Ss achieved significantly higher scores on 4 cognitive subtests than did chronic nonparanoids, but differences between chronic paranoids and nonparanoids were not significant. Ratings of psychopathology dimensions, especially conceptual dysfunction, discriminated significantly among Ss at 3 levels of performance on conservation tests. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of affective tone on the verbal behavior of process and reactive schizophrenics.

To test further the hypothesis that schizophrenics, described as "process" or "reactive," would demonstrate differential responsiveness to affective stimuli, Ss were shown slides projecting a verb (some affective-toned, some neutral) and 4 pronouns (him, she, they, I) and asked to make sentences using the verbs and 1 of the pronouns. It was hypothesized that avoidance of the pronoun "I" and retarded reaction time, when affectively-toned verbs were utilized, would distinguish the performance of the 2 groups: The results confirmed the hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of seating distance on interpersonal attraction in an interview situation.

Assigned 42 schizophrenic and 42 alcoholic inpatients randomly to 1 of 3 conditions differing in the seated distance between S and E during a brief "intake" interview. Results indicate that schizophrenic Ss seated at both the intermediate (personal) and far (social) distances, as opposed to the close (intimate) distance, were more attracted to the E. Alcoholic Ss seated at the intermediate as opposed to the close distance were more attracted to the E. Measures of E's attitudes following the interview revealed that he was more attracted to the alcoholic than to the schizophrenic Ss. Findings support the notion that seating distance as a channel of nonverbal communication can affect the interviewer-patient relationship. (25 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effect of psychopathology on visual discrimination.

"Perceptual and motor aspects of the Bender-Gestalt Test performance were compared for 4 groups of Ss: 10 student nurses, 10 acute schizophrenic patients, 10 chronic schizophrenic patients, and 10 patients hospitalized for neurological reasons… . After the Ss had obtained equal experiences with the Bender designs by reproducing them under memory and copy conditions, a perceptual multiple-choice test was administered under memory and matching conditions. Results indicate that there are marked differences in perceptual accuracy between the 4 groups: the control population was most accurate, with the acute schizophrenic, chronic schizophrenic, and neurological patients less proficient in that order." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Facilitative level and verbal conditioning: A replication.

To replicate a study by R. A. Vitalo (see record 1970-08375-001), 32 Ss were verbally conditioned within an experiment designed to vary preexperiment interview, facilitative level of the E, and the contingency of reinforcement. Results fail to substantiate the claims for facilitative interview effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Need for approval and the conditioning of verbal hostility in asthmatic children.

A verbal operant conditioning paradigm was employed to test the hypothesis that the differential conditionability of hostile and neutral verbalizations is related to the need for social approval. Approval-motivated Ss were generally more effectively conditioned than relatively nonapproval-oriented children. Contrary to predictions, approval-motivated children were more effectively conditioned to hostile than to neutrally toned verbalizations. Nonapproval Ss viewed hostile responses as having minimal reinforcement value. These results were closely related to degree of awareness of the reinforcement contingencies. (22 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of delayed auditory feedback on process and reactive schizophrenic subjects.

A group of 20 male process schizophrenic, 20 male reactive schizophrenic, and 20 normal Ss read a passage aloud under delayed auditory feedback. S grouping, length of hospitalization, age, education, reading speed, and audiometric variables were controlled. It was theorized that normal Ss would be most affected by delayed auditory feedback, followed by reactive and then process Ss. Results do not support this hypothesis; after covarying for control reading time, the effect of diagnostic group disappeared. However, post hoc analysis revealed a subgroup of process patients more influenced by delayed auditory feedback than all other Ss. They were older, had shorter hospitalization, more education, lower control reading times, and higher process-reactive scores than the remaining process Ss. These patients are thought to constitute an "intermediate" schizophrenic group in their social organization and psychotic symptomatology. Thus, it is speculated that delayed auditory feedback could tap interactions between sensory and social variables in certain subsets of the schizophrenic population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of locus of control, instructions, and verbal conditioning on self-referenced affect in a counseling interview.

Examined the relationships between locus of control, specificity of instruction, and verbal conditionability on self-referenced affect in a counseling analog interview. 118 female undergraduates were administered Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale. On the basis of scores tabulated for H. L. Mirels's factor of personal internality, 40 Ss were classified as internals or externals and were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: general instructions or specific instructions. All Ss then participated in an interview with a counselor. The interview was divided into 3 sections: baseline, conditioning, and extinction. During the conditioning period, the counselor verbalized self-referenced affect and reflection of feeling on a 2-min interval schedule. Results indicate that specific instructions combined with verbal conditioning procedures produced the greatest increase in self-referenced affect for both internal and external Ss. Findings are discussed in relation to the directive and instigational functions of instructions on internal/external Ss. Implications for future research are outlined. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Verbal conditioning of value-related material.

Studied verbal conditioning as a function of the interaction between content of stimulus material and S's personal value orientation. 2 groups of 20 undergraduates each were conditioned to select words either consistent or inconsistent with their value orientations as measured by the Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values. 20 additional Ss were conditioned to select words unrelated to values. As predicted, those Ss conditioned to select words consistent with their value orientations produced a steeper acquisition curve than those Ss conditioned to select inconsistent words. However, there was no difference between the acquisition curves of the former group and the control group. Results are related to verbal conditioning in psychotherapy. It is suggested that the therapist who plans to use such a tool should consider the personal and relational aspects of the therapeutic process as important determinants of conditionability. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Responses of A and B subjects to normal, neurotic, schizophrenic, and ambiguous communications.

Investigated the initial reactions of 20 A and 20 B undergraduates to "encounter situations" in which they were asked for help by 4 hypothetical patients communicating in normal, neurotic, schizophrenic, or ambiguous styles. For each patient communication, Ss responded to the following questions: (a) "What might he mean?" (b) "What might he be feeling?" (c) "How would you feel in this situation?" (d) "What do you think you would do?" Results indicate that (a) A's more frequently interpreted patient communications symbolically than did B's; and (b) A's exhibited greater congruence than B's, as indicated by their greater use of feeling words in describing their reactions to the hypothetical patients. Results were related to previous A-B findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vicarious instigation and conditioning of facial expressive and autonomic responses to a model's expressive display of pain.

In 2 experiments, 35 undergraduates participated in the application of a long-interstimulus-interval differential conditioning paradigm with a confederate's videotaped expression of pain serving as the UCS. Facial EMG signals and skin conductance were recorded. Clear evidence of vicarious autonomic instigation and some evidence of facial excitation were obtained in Exp I, but vicarious autonomic and facial muscle conditioning were obtained only for the 50% of the Ss who were aware of the contingency between the CS+ and the model's pain. In Exp II, steps were taken to increase awareness of the contingency, and significant autonomic and facial muscle instigation and conditioning occurred. Both the vicariously instigated and conditioned autonomic responses involved skin conductance increases, but facial responses to the model's pain were different from conditioned facial responses. Autonomic and facial muscle data suggest that Ss were behaving as though they were anticipating shock when the CS+ was displayed to the model, and as though they were in pain when the model was being shocked. Vicariously aroused emotional reactions thus appear to be similar to those that would be elicited if the S were directly anticipating and receiving shock. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conditioning and personality: A study of normal and neurotic subjects.

"Pavlov's concepts of excitation and inhibition were related to the dimension of introversion-extraversion in normal and neurotic subjects. Normal and neurotic subjects were conditioned, using the eyeblink and PGR reflexes. It was found that (a) anxiety states conditioned much better than hysterics, and (b) conditionability is related to introversion-extraversion and not to neuroticism." 37 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An analysis of changes in performance quality with operant conditioning procedures.

Applied operant conditioning procedures to 160 male undergraduates performing a routine, repetitive task to investigate the effectiveness of these procedures in obtaining changes in performance quality (and quantity) over time. Results indicate that (a) when the response-reinforcement contingency was shifted from emphasis on quantity to quality, behavior was not changed significantly by either verbal or monetary reinforcers. (b) During contingency shifts from quality to quantity, overt performance changed significantly using either reinforcer quality falling from high to low levels and quantity mounting from low to high levels. (c) As an effective behavioral change agent, the verbal reinforcer was either equal to or greater than the monetary reinforcer. (d) Shifting the contingency from quality to quantity yielded greater performance changes than shifting from quantity to quality. (e) Conditioning procedures, when compared to an absence of conditioning, facilitated higher levels of performance and maintenance of these higher levels over time. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Etiquette of verbal conditioning.

Explored the role of ambiguity in producing verbal conditioning by using 2 E types and 2 S types. Es, designated "craftly" because they conditioned their Ss without S becoming aware, were assumed to be more ambiguous than normal Es. Ss uninformed about the correct response were considered to be in a more ambiguous position than informed Ss. 6 college students were assigned to each role within each of the 4 kinds of E-S groups. 1 set of 4 groups sat face-to-face while a visual barrier was interposed between another set. The barrier had no effect on conditioning. As expected, crafty Es were more effective conditioners and their verbal style was rated less clear and less certain. Informed Ss conditioned better than the uninformed. Certain types of ambiguity increase verbal compliance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Heart rate conditioning in newborn infants: Relationships among conditionability, heart rate variability, and sex.

Evaluated trace conditioning in 20 newborn infants by examining heart rate responses to the conditioned stimulus (CS), in anticipation of the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and in the absence of the UCS. 2 sets of analyses were performed using subgroups based on preexperimental heart rate variability and sex. Preexperimental heart rate variability was related only to the response to the CS, with only the high-variance Ss showing a conditioned deceleration and exhibiting a change in response across trial blocks. Only the females exhibited conditioned decelerations in response to the CS and in anticipation of the UCS. In the absence of the UCS, only the experimental group as a whole responded with a deceleration. The relationship between sex and heart rate variability was also examined. Data suggest that females tend to have higher levels of heart rate variability which parallels their greater conditionability. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Test-taking sets and the performance of schizophrenics on laboratory tests.

Administered an abbreviated MMPI, a word association test, and a reaction time test under 2 test conditions (neutral and mental illness) to 3 schizophrenic groups-28 acute and 28 chronic Ss from open wards, and 28 chronic Ss from closed wards. Chronic Ss from open wards were the only group to perform differentially on the tests under the 2 conditions, presenting themselves as "healthier" on the MMPI and giving more common responses on the word association test in the mental illness than in the neutral condition. It is concluded that schizophrenic patients likely to be included in research may perform differently on tests given under different conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)