SUBURBAN DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC SEGREGATION IN THE 1990s

ABSTRACT: Suburbanization is changing the face of urban America. A common claim is that suburban sprawl has contributed to increasing levels of economic segregation, but few studies have directly tested this hypothesis. Using U.S. Census data for 1990 and 2000, this paper examines the trends in and the relationship between suburban development patterns and economic segregation in U.S. metropolitan areas. We find that economic segregation, as measured by the Neighborhood Sorting Index (NSI), declined during the 1990s, reversing the earlier trend. However, results from cross‐sectional and fixed‐effects regression models at the metropolitan level suggest that suburbanization, as measured by five different indicators, was a countervailing influence during the decade. Metropolitan areas that were suburbanizing more rapidly had smaller declines in economic segregation than comparable metropolitan areas.     

Recent Evidence on the Continuing Causes of Black‐White Residential Segregation

Abstract: Black‐white residential segregation, while on the decline, still persists at high levels in most US metropolitan areas. Despite decades of research into the underlying causes of black‐white residential segregation, there is still much disagreement among scholars over the root causes of this phenomenon. This article examines recent evidence on the causes of black‐white residential segregation. Evidence on the following hypotheses is examined: racial income differences, racial differences in tastes for housing services, racial differences in housing market information, racial prejudice, and housing market discrimination. Recent evidence suggests that household‐level socioeconomic and demographic characteristics explain only a small proportion of the racial differences in location choices. Racial processes such as prejudice and housing market discrimination continue to drive black‐white segregation patterns.     

The integrated sprawl index: measuring the urban landscape in Israel

Urban sprawl in Israel began two decades ago, but has yet to be empirically measured or characterized. Major processes that influenced sprawl in Israel were the rise in standard of living, consumer preference for low-density and single-family housing in the suburbs, and the arrival of nearly one million immigrants from the former USSR during the 1990s. All these processes led to a massive transformation of agricultural land into urban land-uses all over the country and provide some evidence that sprawl is taking place as a pattern of development. This study attempt to measure and analyze urban sprawl in Israel, based on a large sample of urban settlements. Higher sprawl rates were found to correlate significantly with higher population and land-consumption growth rates, which implies a higher consumer preference to reside in more sprawling patterns. Variables that are linked with sprawl in Western countries were usually found to be significant in Israel, as well; however, unlike other Western countries, urban sprawl in Israel is rather spatially dispersed, and not necessarily found on the edges of metropolitan areas.     

The anti-apartment movement in the U.S. and the role of land use regulations in creating housing segregation

In the U.S., typically, poor and minority households are concentrated in central cities, which are ringed by middle class suburbs which contain a majority of the population of the metropolitan area. The resulting segregation is largely the outcome of public policy and institutional arrangements, rather than the excesses of a free market. Land use regulations have played a central role in creating segregation among the types of housing that are affordable to different income groups. Single family only zoning is a central institution in suburban areas; often multifamily housing is limited to a very tiny portion of the land zoned for housing. Land use policies regarding housing are formulated on a municipal level, in which states have only a minimal role and the federal government has no role. Decentralization of revenue sources and fiscal support for local services, including education, provides incentives for local zoning policies which exclude groups which are viewed as more costly to service, while decentralization of zoning powers make these policies possible. This article describes 1) the basic contours of the housing stock and population distribution in metropolitan areas, 2) the evolution of the single family only policy, and 3) recent efforts to counteract housing segregation patterns, which have had little success. Kenneth K. Baar is a attorney in the Berkeley, California and has a Ph.D. in urban planning. From 1991 to 1993, he was a Fulbright professor at the Budapest University of Economic Sciences. In 1994–95 he was visiting professor in the Urban Planning Department at Columbia University in New York City.     

混合式住区对中国大都市住房建设的启示

鉴于中国大都市中日益显著的居住隔离现象,对于住房选择的干预越来越依赖市场,而现有住房政策、土地政策和城市规划忽视了住房和社区的社会意义,应当在住房发展中让不同收入阶层、不同类型家庭在社区和邻里层面混合居住,享有同等的社会资源,使社会各阶层在城市空间层面上处于相对平衡的状态,减轻由于居住空间分异所引发的社会问题。这一理想的实现必须依靠适度正确的制度干预。通过介绍美国、香港等国家和城市混合式住区发展的经验,引发更多从政策和实践等各个层面对中国大都市住房建设的探索。     

The New Frontier in Metropolitan Planning

A major change is underway in metropolitan planning. The static plan, geared to a desired end-state, will be replaced by plans and programs for growth through future time. With the clarification of the concept of land use, separate plans will be prepared for locations of populations and activities and for the locations of buildings, facilities, and other physical improvements. Transportation plans will be integrated with land use and land improvement plans, reflecting the mutual interdependence of activities and traffic. Urban renewal plans will become integral with metropolitan plans, presenting programs for both developed and developing areas. Most important, with the development of metropolitan growth models, we shall better understand the processes of continual urban change, and our master plans will themselves become continuing processes for guiding that change.     

Poverty,Race, and US Metropolitan Social and Economic Structure

This research evaluates the link between social and economic structural features of US urban areas and the poverty rates of black and white residents in 1990. Using a sample of 112 metropolitan areas (with poverty rates ranging from 9.4% to 45.4% for blacks, and 3.5% to 16.0% for whites) and multiple regression analysis, we find that metropolitan location in the Northeast lowers poverty rates of blacks and whites compared to metropolitan areas in other regions. Moreover, population growth, higher percent black, increased black high school graduation rates, the presence of immigrants, a high percentage of workers employed in manufacturing and relatively few in retailing, low black unemployment, and an older black population are related to lower black poverty rates. For whites, lower poverty rates are related to high racial residential segregation, increased white high school graduation rates, low white unemployment, a large black population, and a high percentage of workers employed in manufacturing and fewer employed in retail sales and professional services.     

国外城市限制政策的模式及其对城市发展的影响

城市限制政策是随着城市空间的快速增长而提出的,它是近年来城市研究领域倍受争议的概念之一。城市限制政策的实施在国外已经非常普遍．它对阻止城市蔓延．提高城市建筑密度起到了一定作用。我国作为世界上人均土地资源相对短缺和城市化进程最快的国家之一．应该关注城市限制政策及其对城市发展的影响。文章分析了国外典型城市限制政策的概念、类型、模式,以及对城市经济．住房以及城市空间发展模式等方面的影响．希冀能够对我国的政策制定和城市规划提供一定的参考。     

Local Land Use Regulation and the Chain of Exclusion

The study reported in this article tested connections between five land use controls and the racial composition of the communities that use them. A survey of localities in the 25 largest U.S. metropolitan areas showed that low-density-only zoning, which restricts residential densities to fewer than eight dwelling units per acre, consistently reduced rental housing; this, in turn, limited the number of Black and Hispanic residents. Building permit caps were also associated with lowered proportions of Hispanic residents. Other controls tested—urban growth boundaries, adequate public facilities ordinances, and moratoria—had limited effects on either housing types or racial distribution.     

Measuring Neighborhood Diversity and Stability in Home‐Buying: Examining Patterns by Race and Income in a Robust Housing Market

Abstract: In recent years, there has been continued interest in prospects for the development and sustainability of both mixed‐income and racially diverse communities. We examine an important contributor to racial and economic diversity and segregation—the geographic patterns of homebuyers. In particular, we examine the extent to which neighborhoods within the Chicago metropolitan area have obtained significant levels of income and racial diversity in home buying and maintained such diversity over the 1990s. We analyze the racial and income composition of homebuyers by census tract for two periods: 1993 to 1994 and 1999 to 2000. First, by comparing changes in home buying to 1990 to 2000 changes in cross‐sectional census data, we find that changes in home‐buying patterns are significant contributors to neighborhood racial change. We then find a significant decline in the proportion of whites buying into neighborhoods where nearly all buyers are white. The policy implications of our findings are described and discussed.     

读Robert Fishman《世纪转折点的美国大城市》及其对我国城市发展的几点思考

基于美国权威学术刊物的资料,介绍了过去50年影响美国城市发展的10大因素,它们是:①1956年全美高速公路法案和机动车迅速增长;②联邦政府住房管理按揭投资计划;③中心城市的工业疏散;④市中心再开发和公共住房项目;⑤可大规模生产的郊区装配式住宅;⑥城市和郊区的种族隔离和工作歧视;⑦封闭式大型购物中心;⑧"阳光带"模式的蔓延;⑨空调;⑩1960年代的城市暴乱.美国在过去50年城镇化发展的历史经验和教训,虽然因其所处时代和国情与我国有诸多不同,但是其中也有一些对正处于城镇化进程关键阶段的我国城市规划和建设,具有一定的借鉴价值.     

POVERTY CONCENTRATION IN THE PRISMATIC METROPOLIS: THE IMPACT OF COMPOSITIONAL and REDISTRIBUTIVE FORCES WITHIN LOS ANGELES,CALIFORNIA, 1990–2000

Abstract: The degrees to which poor populations are spatially concentrated within metropolitan areas are influenced by two sets of forces. In this article, I refer to the first set of forces as redistributive forces, which includes intrametropolitan forces that redistribute populations among different neighborhoods. The second set of forces includes metropolitan‐wide processes that alter the relative poverty composition of the overall metropolitan population. These latter processes are referred to here as compositional forces. This research investigates the degrees to which these two sets of forces impacted poverty concentration among racial and ethnic groups within Los Angeles County, CA from 1990 to 2000. Both forces generally functioned to increase poverty concentration among all groups considered, with compositional forces having the stronger effect. Evidence suggests that the residential experiences of poor whites, African Americans, and Hispanics were strongly influenced by the migratory behavior of the nonpoor in Los Angeles. The Asian population, however, exhibited some evidence of ethnic (or racial) “self‐selectivity,” as this population exhibited less interclass segregation over time. Despite increased poverty concentration, findings demonstrate that Los Angeles became slightly less segregated by race and ethnicity during the 1990s.     

Verifying the Multi‐Dimensional Nature of Metropolitan Land Use: Advancing the Understanding and Measurement of Sprawl

Abstract: Twelve conceptually distinct dimensions of land use patterns are operationalized for 50 large US metropolitan areas using a battery of indices. Common patterns of variation in these indices across metropolitan areas are discerned using correlation and factor analyses. We find that: (1) seven principal components best summarize the dimensions of housing and employment land uses, (2) metro areas often exhibit both high and low levels of sprawl‐like patterns across the seven components, and (3) housing and employment aspects of sprawl‐like patterns differ in nature. Thus, land use patterns prove multi‐dimensional in both theory and practice. Exploratory analyses indicate: (1) little regional variation in land use patterns, (2) metro areas with larger populations are more dense/continuous with greater housing centrality and concentration of employment in the core, (3) older areas have higher degrees of housing concentration and employment in the core, (4) constrained areas evince greater density/continuity, and (5) inter‐metropolitan variations in several dimensions of land use patterns are not well explained by population, age, growth patterns, or topographical constraints on development. Results imply that policymakers must carefully unravel which land use dimension is causing undesirable outcomes, and then devise precise policy instruments to change only this dimension.     

大都市近郊大型商品房住区的发展变迁与规划对策——以上海市为例

20世纪90年代初期以来,在城市住房制度改革、产业结构调整、空间扩展和郊区化等因素的共同作用下,我国大都市近郊大型商品房住区建设得到了快速推进.然而,由于人户分离、区位环境转变、规划管理缺失等原因,近郊大型商品房住区发展过程中存在住区设施配套不足、住区开发建设与近郊城镇缺乏系统整合等问题,应通过强化近郊城镇层面的发展协调机制,提高规划设计的整体性与灵活性、增强设施可转换性等措施,促使住区建设与城镇发展走向融合.     

REGULATING SCARCITY: THE EFFECTS OF ZONING ON URBAN LAND MARKET CHANGES

This paper explores the dynamics between zoning, land values and neighborhood change from 1960 to 1970. Using a sample of 352 central city and suburban census tracts contained within the Chicago SMSA, this paper examines the influence of zoning on neighborhood land value appreciation and the independent effects of land values and zoning on neighborhood housing changes. Findings show that zoning influenced land value appreciation over the decade within both central city and suburban areas. Central city zoning and land values operated jointly to influence neighborhood housing changes while in suburban areas, zoning mechanisms overrode market forces in influencing neighborhood development patterns. This paper demonstrates the forcefulness of the politics of the urban land market in regulating both land scarcity and land value changes and in influencing metropolitan spatial distributions.     

Land use regulation and intraregional population–employment interaction

Land use regulations often delay residential development processes and increase the development costs, although they contribute to addressing market failures and realizing a well-organized urban spatial structure. Raising barriers to development can prevent households from moving in response to either job relocations or job growth at certain locations in a timely manner through restrictions in the local housing supply. This situation may also result in longer commuting distances, times, and costs, as well as greater spatial mismatches. To examine the possible adverse effects of the regulations, this study analyzes how intraregional population–employment interactions vary across metropolitan areas that substantially differ in the restrictiveness of land use regulations. First, an exploratory correlation analysis of 40 large U.S. metropolitan areas reveals that highly regulated regions, particularly those with lengthy approval processes, are likely to show a lower correlation between census tract-level population and employment changes and an increase in mean commuting time between 1990 and 2000. Secondly, regression analysis suggests that the lower correlation in highly regulated metropolitan areas could be attributed to the limited responsiveness of the population to employment redistribution within the regions.     

Grindsamhälle: the rise of urban gating and gated housing in Sweden

Sweden does not have gated communities, but this paper argues that processes of gating and the associated consequences are apparent in Sweden, particularly in metropolitan regions. Based on interviews, observations and analysis of previous research, the article identifies the rise of urban gating and gated housing. Urban gating restricts access to previously public land through material gating and results in a loss of the right to use-value of urban land. The rise of a new and exclusive form of gated housing associated with the lifestyles of the mobile middle class, referred to here, as the residential hotel, is spotlighted, prompting questions about the concentration of affluence in already privileged areas and the reinforcing effect of gating on existing patterns of socio-spatial polarization.     

By Words and Deeds: Racial Steering by Real Estate Agents in the U.S. in 2000

Although prohibited by the federal Fair Housing Act of 1968, studies in the 1980s found that racial steering by real estate agents in the U.S. was still occurring. That legislation was strengthened in 1988, but throughout the 1990s, no study examined whether these tougher strictures helped eliminate steering. In 2000, HUD and the Urban Institute conducted the national Housing Discrimination Study in 20 U.S. metropolitan areas to replicate and extend that earlier work. In this article, we report the results of this latest study, which examined three types of steering and three steering mechanisms, all at three geographic scales. The results indicate that steering of all types is occurring when Black and White homebuyers are involved. In at least 12 to 15% of the cases, agents provided gratuitous commentary that gave more information to White homebuyers and encouraged them to choose homes in areas with more White and fewer poor households. Steering is less prevalent when Hispanic and White buyers are involved. We also found no evidence that steering declined over the last decade, despite the toughening of the federal legislation in 1988. We conclude by discussing the implications for interracial wealth differentials and new fair housing enforcement initiatives.     

Whites' neighbourhood racial preferences and neighbourhood racial composition in the United States: evidence from the multi‐city study of urban inequality

Within the housing segregation literature major disagreements have developed over two fundamental issues: (1) the role that whites' aversion to racially mixed neighbourhoods plays in causing modern segregation in the US; and (2) the factors that underlie this aversion, including the effects of inter‐racial contact on whites' neighbourhood racial preferences and whether these preferences reflect neighbourhood stereotyping as opposed to pure racial prejudice. Extant evidence on these issues is either old or indirect. This paper provides direct evidence on these issues using new data from the Multi‐City Study of Urban Inequality. The results suggest that (1) whites' neighbourhood racial preferences play an important role in explaining the racial composition of their neighbourhoods; (2) inter‐racial contact in neighbourhoods and workplaces leads to a greater willingness among whites to live with blacks; and (3) although younger and more educated whites express a stronger taste for integration than other whites, the magnitude of these differences leads to only a small increase in the black percentage of the neighbourhood. In addition, the results provide no evidence in support of the hypothesis that whites stereotype black neighbourhoods rather than blacks per se.     

THE IMPACTS OF STATE GROWTH MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS ON URBAN SPRAWL IN THE 1990S

ABSTRACT: The urban landscape in the United States has been characterized by sprawl for decades. Despite arguments in favor of sprawl or its component attributes, it is widely believed that sprawl leads to many contemporary United States urban and environmental problems. Since 1961, 15 states in the United States have adopted state growth management programs (SGMPs) with various goals, including curtailing sprawl. This article, among a few previous studies, examines the effectiveness of SGMPs on containing sprawl. We create sprawl indices for 294 metropolitan areas in 1990 and 2000, measuring two major dimensions of sprawl: density and land‐use mixture. Our examination of SGMPs involves not only a dummy variable indicating whether a SGPM exists or not, but a score system measuring the degree of state involvement in local growth management and three variables measuring three major attributes of SGMPs. With the refined measurements for both sprawl and SGMPs, we examine the impacts of SGMPs on the sprawl measures in the 1990s of the selected metropolitan areas in the United States. Our statistical results show that SGMPs effectively promoted compact development in terms of population density and land‐use mixture. However, the statistical results do not support the claim that SGMPs with a higher degree of state involvement in local growth management, on average, worked better at curtailing sprawl than those with a lower‐degree involvement in the 1990s. This article suggests that state governments in the United States should more fully exercise their responsibilities to control urban sprawl rather than just leave this issue to local devices.