Cigarette advertising and promotional strategies in retail outlets: results of a statewide survey in California

OBJECTIVE: To examine the extent and types of cigarette advertising materials in stores and to assess tobacco company compliance with the 1998 Master Settlement Agreement (MSA). DESIGN: A cross-sectional analysis of a random sample of 586 stores that sold cigarettes. SETTING: US state of California. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Trained data collectors classified cigarette advertising materials by type (signs, displays, functional items), location (interior or exterior), and placement (below 3 feet (1 m) or near candy). RESULTS: California retail outlets featured 17.2 (SD 16.1) tobacco advertising materials on average, and 94% of stores featured at least some advertising. About 85% of these were within 4 feet (1.3 m) of the counter. About 50% of the stores had ads at or below 3 feet, and 23% had cigarette product displays next to candy. In violation of the MSA, 3% of stores featured signs with cartoons and 11% had large exterior signs. CONCLUSIONS: Tobacco companies are aggressively using stores to market cigarettes. Moreover, the spirit of the MSA-to protect children from cigarette advertising-has not been realised. Future studies should monitor industry use of this venue and assess the impact of exposure to cigarette advertising materials in stores on adult smokers and youth.     

Working to make an image: an analysis of three Philip Morris corporate image media campaigns

Objective

To describe the nature and timing of, and population exposure to, Philip Morris USA''s three explicit corporate image television advertising campaigns and explore the motivations behind each campaign.

Methods

: Analysis of television ratings from the largest 75 media markets in the United States, which measure the reach and frequency of population exposure to advertising; copies of all televised commercials produced by Philip Morris; and tobacco industry documents, which provide insights into the specific goals of each campaign.

Findings

Household exposure to the “Working to Make a Difference: the People of Philip Morris” averaged 5.37 ads/month for 27 months from 1999–2001; the “Tobacco Settlement” campaign averaged 10.05 ads/month for three months in 2000; and “PMUSA” averaged 3.11 ads/month for the last six months in 2003. The percentage of advertising exposure that was purchased in news programming in order to reach opinion leaders increased over the three campaigns from 20%, 39% and 60%, respectively. These public relations campaigns were designed to counter negative images, increase brand recognition, and improve the financial viability of the company.

Conclusions

Only one early media campaign focused on issues other than tobacco, whereas subsequent campaigns have been specifically concerned with tobacco issues, and more targeted to opinion leaders. The size and timing of the advertising buys appeared to be strategically crafted to maximise advertising exposure for these population subgroups during critical threats to Philip Morris''s public image.     

Adolescents' responses to cigarette advertisements: links between exposure,liking, and the appeal of smoking

OBJECTIVE—To evaluate adolescents'' responses to cigarette advertisements for different brands.DESIGN—Adolescents were shown one print advertisement for each of five cigarette brands (Camel, Marlboro, Kool, Benson & Hedges, and Lucky Strike). They indicated on a structured questionnaire how many times they had seen the advertisement (or one almost like it), how much they liked it, whether or not they thought it made smoking more appealing, and whether or not it made them want to smoke cigarettes of that brand.SETTING—Middle school and high school classrooms, seven schools in four states in the United States (New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Texas). The classrooms were selected randomly within each school.PARTICIPANTS—534 adolescents in grades 6-12 (ages 11-18 years) from seven schools in four states, 54% female, 76% white.RESULTS—The advertisements for Camel and Marlboro were more likely than the advertisements for the other brands to be seen, to be liked, to be viewed as making smoking appealing, and to influence adolescents to want to smoke cigarettes of that brand. More than 95% of the adolescents had seen an advertisement featuring Joe Camel or the Marlboro Man at least once, and more than 50% had seen these advertisements six or more times. Nearly half believed that the Joe Camel advertisement makes smoking more appealing, and 40% believed that the Marlboro Man advertisement makes smoking more appealing. Adolescent smokers were more likely than non-smokers to believe that the advertisements for Camel and Marlboro make smoking more appealing.CONCLUSIONS—The advertisements most popular among adolescents are for two of the brands they are most likely to smoke—Marlboro and Camel. The results of the study are consistent with the view that certain cigarette advertisements enhance the appeal of smoking to many adolescents.     

Exposure to cigarette promotions and smoking uptake in adolescents: evidence of a dose-response relation

OBJECTIVE: To assess whether a dose-response relation exists between the number of cigarette promotional items (CPIs) owned by an adolescent, and smoking behaviour. DESIGN AND SETTING: Voluntary, self administered survey of 1265 sixth through to 12th grade students (ages 10-19 years), representing 79-95% of all students attending five rural New Hampshire and Vermont public (state funded) schools in October 1996. The association between the number of CPIs owned by students and smoking behaviour was examined using multivariate regression methods. OUTCOME MEASURES: Adjusted odds of being a smoker (>/= 100 cigarettes lifetime) and, among never and experimental smokers, adjusted cumulative odds of having higher levels on a smoking uptake index given the number of CPIs owned. RESULTS: One third of students owned a CPI (n = 406). Among owners, 211 owned one, 82 owned two, 57 owned three, 24 owned four, 23 owned five, and 7 students owned six CPIs. The number of CPIs owned by students was not associated with grade in school but was significantly higher in males, those with poorer school performance, those who perceived high prevalence of peer smoking, and those with higher exposure to peer and family smoking. The more items a student owned, the greater the chances of being a smoker. For example, smoking prevalence was 11.2% for those not owning a CPI, 41.5% for those owning two, 58.5% for those owning four, and 71.4% for those owning six CPIs. The dose-response relation remained after controlling for confounding; compared with those who did not own a CPI, the likelihood of being a smoker was significantly higher for those who owned one CPI, with an adjusted odds ratio (OR) of 2.7 (95% confidence interval (CI) 1.7 to 4.1); OR was 3.4 (95% CI 1.9 to 5.9) for those owning two CPIs, and 8.4 (95% CI 5.0 to 14.2) for those owning three or more CPIs. After excluding smokers, there was a crude dose-response association between CPI ownership and higher rates of experimentation with cigarettes among sixth to ninth graders (ages 11-15 years) only (n = 543). After controlling for confounding influences, the dose-response relation remained, with the likelihood of being higher on the smoking uptake index rising with the number of CPIs owned: one CPI, adjusted cumulative OR 1.7 (95% CI 1.1 to 2.60); two CPIs, OR 2.5 (95% CI 1.2 to 5.1); and three or more CPIs, OR 4.8 (95% CI 1.9 to 12.2). CONCLUSIONS: This study offers evidence of a dose-response relation between the number of CPIs owned by adolescents and higher likelihood of experimental and established smoking. The dose-response relation persists after controlling for confounding influences. These data provide further support of a causal relation between tobacco promotional campaigns and smoking behaviour among adolescents.     

Features of sales promotion in cigarette magazine advertisements, 1980-1993: an analysis of youth exposure in the United States

OBJECTIVE: To examine the presence of features of sales promotion in cigarette advertising in United States magazines, and to describe trends in youth (ages 12-17) exposure to such advertising (termed "promotional advertising"). DESIGN: Analysis of 1980-1993 annual data on: (a) total pages and expenditures for "promotional advertising" (advertising that contains features of sales promotion) in 36 popular magazines (all magazines for which data were available), by cigarette brand; and (b) readership characteristics for each magazine. We defined promotional advertising as advertisements that go beyond the simple advertising of the product and its features to include one or more features of sales promotion, such as coupons, "retail value added" promotions, contests, sweepstakes, catalogues, specialty item distribution, and sponsorship of public entertainment or sporting events. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Total pages of, and expenditures for promotional advertising in magazines; and gross impressions (number of readers multiplied by the number of pages of promotional advertising) among youth and total readership. RESULTS: During the period 1980-1993, tobacco companies spent $90.2 million on promotional advertising in the 36 magazines. The proportion of promotional advertising appearing in "youth" magazines (defined as magazines with a greater than average proportion of youth readers) increased from 7% in 1980 to nearly 100% in 1987. Although youth readers represented only 19% of magazine readers, the proportion of youth gross impressions to total gross impressions of tobacco promotional advertising exceeded this value throughout the entire period 1985-1993, peaking at 33% in 1987. The five "youth" cigarette brands (defined as brands smoked by at least 2.5% of smokers aged 10-15 years in 1993) accounted for 59% of promotional advertising in all magazines, but for 83% of promotional advertising in youth magazines during the study period. CONCLUSIONS: In their magazine advertising, cigarette companies are preferentially exposing young people to advertisements that contain sales promotional features.     

Seeing,wanting, owning: the relationship between receptivity to tobacco marketing and smoking susceptibility in young people

OBJECTIVE—To assess the effect of the tobacco industry''s marketing practices on adolescents by examining the relationship between their receptivity to these practices and their susceptibility to start smoking.DESIGN—Paper-and-pencil surveys measuring association with other smokers, exposure to tobacco industry marketing strategies, experience with smoking, and resolve not to smoke in the future.SETTING—25 randomly selected classrooms in five middle schools in San Jose, California.SUBJECTS—571 seventh graders with an average age of 13 years and 8 months; 57% were female. Forty-five per cent of the students were Asian, 38% were Hispanic, 12% were white, and 5% were black.MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES—Exposure to social influences, receptivity to marketing strategies, susceptibility to start smoking.RESULTS—About 70% of the participants indicated at least moderate receptivity to tobacco marketing materials. Children who are more receptive are also more susceptible to start smoking. In addition to demographics and social influences, receptivity to tobacco marketing materials was found to be strongly associated with susceptibility.CONCLUSIONS—Tobacco companies conduct marketing campaigns that effectively capture teenage attention and stimulate desire for their promotional items. These marketing strategies may function to move young teenagers from non-smoking status toward regular use of tobacco. Our results demonstrate that there is a clear association between tobacco marketing practices and youngsters'' susceptibility to smoke. The findings, along with other research, provide compelling support for regulating the manner in which tobacco products are marketed, to protect young people from the tobacco industry''s strategies to reach them.     

Industry Front Groups: A Tobacco Case Study

We consider how industries use front groups to combat public health measures by relating the history of “Get Government Off Our Back”, a coalition created by the tobacco industry to fight government regulation. Using tobacco industry documents, contemporaneous media reports, journal articles, and press releases, we review the establishment by RJ Reynolds of an industry front group, Get Government Off Our Back (GGOOB) in 1994. The group’s goal was to advocate against U.S. federal regulation of tobacco. By keeping its involvement secret, RJ Reynolds was able to draw public and legislative support toward limiting government regulation of tobacco without having to address the tobacco industry’s reputation for misrepresenting evidence. Unfortunately, the tobacco industry”s use of front groups is not unique; other industries use front groups to fight measures designed to protect public health. Research on the background and funding of advocacy organizations could help identify industry front groups and make them less useful to their creators. Received: July 2, 2007; Accepted: July 4, 2007     

Every document and picture tells a story: using internal corporate document reviews, semiotics, and content analysis to assess tobacco advertising

In this article we present communication theory as a conceptual framework for conducting documents research on tobacco advertising strategies, and we discuss two methods for analysing advertisements: semiotics and content analysis. We provide concrete examples of how we have used tobacco industry documents archives and tobacco advertisement collections iteratively in our research to yield a synergistic analysis of these two complementary data sources. Tobacco promotion researchers should consider adopting these theoretical and methodological approaches.     

关于烟叶工商交接成交样品运作模式的探讨

为了增强卷烟工业企业烟叶调拨的针对性,提升烟叶资源与工业利用的匹配度,笔者阐述了工商成交样品的概念与特点,分析了制作成交样品的依据,论证了建立工商成交样品的可行性,梳理了成交样品制作的基本流程,归纳了工商交接成交样品运作模式实践与探索,最后对工商交接过程中存在的问题与矛盾进行了分析和讨论。     

全国烟叶工商交接等级质量分析

利用2005年度全国烟叶工商交接等级质量监督检查资料对全国烟叶等级质量进行了分析。结果表明,全国烟叶工商交接等级合格率在不同产烟省份间存在显著差异,变幅为44.9%~71.5%。一般需求量大、质量好的烟叶等级合格率较低。除经营管理方面的原因外,对等级质量进行分析显示,混部位、混颜色、混等级是合格率不高的主要问题。在原等级中混低的比例远远高于混高的比例;上等烟叶混低的比例远远大于中、下等烟叶混低的比例;中部烟叶混低的比例大于上部和下部烟叶混低的比例。同时,提出了提高烟叶等级质量的关键在于诚信经营、加强监督和提高分级水平。     

中国旧式制烟业的历史发展及其近代命运

当前,学术界经常将烟草种植等同于烟草生产,而忽略了旧式制烟业的存在价值及其特殊意义。明清以来,随着烟草种植的广泛发展,旧式制烟业开始产生,并逐渐形成了“全国布局、区域集中”的分布特点。跨区域的广泛流通,使某些地方的旧式制烟业成为区域性的专业化生产中心,并形成了大量的名牌烟品。在机器卷烟工业和手工卷烟业的双重打击下,旧式制烟业并未快速地退出历史舞台,而在抗战时期达到顶峰,并在1949年以后持续存在。中国旧式制烟业由于其特殊的产品属性和手工业形态,在近代变革过程中呈现出更多样化的样态,值得我们进行进一步的系统分析和研究。     

实施林纸一体化振兴河南造纸工业

介绍了河南省造纸工业的现状以及森林资源的情况。指出了适合河南省造纸工业的树种及实施林纸一体化是河南省造纸工业的重要举措,同时从树种、气候、水资源等方面分析了河南省实施林纸一体化的可行性。     

Tobacco interests or the public interest: 20 years of industry strategies to undermine airline smoking restrictions

Objectives

To understand the evolution of 20 years of tobacco industry strategies to undermine federal restrictions of smoking on aircraft in the United States.

Design

We searched and analysed internal tobacco industry records, public documents, and other related research.

Results

The industry viewed these restrictions as a serious threat to the social acceptability of smoking. Its initial efforts included covert letter‐writing campaigns and lobbying of the airline industry, but with the emergence of proposals to ban smoking, the tobacco companies engaged in ever increasing efforts to forestall further restrictions. Tactics to dominate the public record became especially rigorous. The industry launched an aggressive public relations campaign that began with the promotion of industry sponsored petition drives and public opinion surveys. Results from polling research that produced findings contrary to the industry''s position were suppressed. In order to demonstrate smoker outrage against a ban, later efforts included the sponsorship of smokers'' rights and other front groups. Congressional allies and industry consultants sought to discredit the science underlying proposals to ban smoking and individual tobacco companies conducted their own cabin air quality research. Faced with the potential of a ban on all domestic flights, the industry sought to intimidate an air carrier and a prominent policymaker. Despite the intensification of tactics over time, including mobilisation of an army of lobbyists and Congressional allies, the tobacco industry was ultimately defeated.

Conclusions

Our longitudinal analysis provides insights into how and when the industry changed its plans and provides public health advocates with potential counterstrategies.     

中国化纤工业的发展和非织造布工业的关系

化纤是非织造布的原料之一,中国的化纤工业在21世纪将有较大的增长,对非织造布工业有一定的推动。中国的化纤工业和非织造布工业有着十分光明的发展前景,并有希望在21世纪进入世界先进行列。     

盐业产业集中化与竞争力

产业集中化是当前国际产业市场的发展趋势.我国盐业产业组织结构是长期低集中度条件下的过度竞争形态,它极大地制约了盐业结构调整、技术进步、有序竞争与市场竞争力.为提高盐业产业集中度,本文从体制改革、产业政策、国际化经营和市场秩序建设等方面提出了建议.     

安徽省茧丝绸生态产业链建设及其优化研究

从安徽省茧丝绸生态产业链发展的基本情况出发,探讨了安徽省茧丝绸生态产业链的构成要素与主体利益关系,基本特征与关键环节,分析了安徽省茧丝绸生态产业链建设中存在的问题,提出了促进安徽茧丝绸生态产业链优化的政策建议.     

黑龙江省森工系统刨花板工业发展探讨

从扩大规模、提高质量、减少消耗、降低成本、增加产品品种等方面,对黑龙江省森工系统刨花板工业的发展进行了探讨。     

营养产业崛起是社会经济发展的必然要求

随着中国居民生活水平不断提高,健康理念日益受到重视,中国居民不同层次的健康需求拉动了中国保健品行业的发展,中国营养健康产业蓬勃兴起。本文介绍了营养产业的概念及发展背景,分析了我国发展营养产业的特有条件和比较优势,提出发展营养产业是社会发展的必然要求,并对我国发展营养产业提出建议。     

Brand differences of free-base nicotine delivery in cigarette smoke: the view of the tobacco industry documents

The recent availability of internal tobacco industry documents provides significant insight into industry knowledge and manipulation of tobacco smoke delivery. One critical area of research is the role of smoke chemistry in determining the absorption and effects of smoke constituents, especially harm producing or pharmacologically active compounds. Independent scientific research has suggested that the nicotine dosing characteristics, hence the addiction potential of cigarettes, may be determined in part by the amount of free‐base nicotine in cigarette smoke and its effects on the location, route, and speed of absorption in the body and on the sensory perception effects of the inhaled smoke. Tobacco industry documents describe the use of a number of methods internally for measuring free‐base nicotine delivery. These include the common use of cigarette “smoke pH” as a means to estimate the fraction of free‐base nicotine in the particulate matter (PM) in cigarette smoke, as well as efforts to measure free‐base nicotine directly. Although these methods do not provide accurate absolute measures of free‐base nicotine in smoke, consistencies observed in the findings across the various manufacturers indicate: (1) real relative differences in the acid/base chemistry of the smoke from different brands of cigarettes; (2) a connection between differences in free‐base levels and brand‐dependent differences in sensory perception and smoke “impact”; and (3) levels of free‐base nicotine that are greater than have typically been publicly discussed by the industry. Furthermore, the results of these methods are generally consistent with those of a recent study from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention which directly measured the free‐base fraction of nicotine across a range of cigarette types. Consideration of the likely fundamental importance of free‐base nicotine levels in cigarette smoke, together with the efforts discussed in the tobacco industry documents to measure such levels, indicates that the public health community would benefit from additional research to assess directly the delivery of free‐base nicotine in cigarette smoke across brands. This may be especially useful for those products (“light”, “ultralight”, “reduced carcinogen”, etc) that have been promoted, either explicitly or implicitly, as “harm reducing”.     

新型材料在卷烟降焦减害中的应用

综述了纳米材料、生物材料等新型材料在卷烟工业中的应用研究情况,这些新型材料有效降低了卷烟中的焦油和其他有害成分的含量.指出纳米技术和生物技术等新兴技术将成为提高烟草质量的重要技术.