Aging and illusory correlation in judgments of co-occurrence.

Examined the influence of aging on illusory correlation in judgments of co-occurrence. Ten older (aged 60–76 yrs) and 10 younger (aged 17–29 yrs) Ss judged the probability of co-occurrence for events associated with preexisting expectancies after receiving nonsalient or salient information about the true probabilities of co-occurrence of the events. Results showed that when current information on event co-occurrence was not salient, preexisting expectancies strongly influenced the judgments of both younger and older Ss. However, when this information was salient, younger Ss' judgments reflected more accurate adjustment to the probabilistic relationships in the information than did older Ss' judgments. This age difference may be related to changes in memory processes that accompany increasing age and to differences in judgment processes necessitated by these changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of multiple social categories on stereotyping.

Examined the cognitive processes underlying stereotyping, and the effects of multiple social categories in impression formation. 60 Canadian students (aged 17–29 yrs) assessed the stereotypes of men, women, 20 or 70 yr olds, and French or English Canadians. Ss were then introduced to 8 target individuals representing combinations of gender, age and ethnicity, followed by a memory test. Stereotype judgments were relatively more automatic than nonstereotype judgments. Individuals tended to be perceived in terms of their gender and age; this effect was more pronounced on stereotype traits than on the nonstereotype ones. Memory was found to be better for age and gender than for ethnicity, and the speed for making such judgments followed the same pattern. Results support the view that individuals are perceived in terms of stereotypes and suggest that certain salient characteristics will be more influential in a particular context. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-other differences in children's perceptions about the causes of important events.

Three studies examined differences between children"s (ages 8–15) beliefs about the effectiveness of multiple internal and external causes for producing outcomes in their own lives versus in those of their peers. Differences specific to the school domain were found: Starting at age 11 or 12, children perceived internal causes as more important for others than for themselves; and only beliefs about the self related to perceived control. More strikingly, a sample of gifted children, who presumably receive social feedback that they are different from their peers, reported that (a) they exerted more control and possessed more ability than their peers and (b) other children knew less about the causes of school performance and had to rely more on effort and powerful others; only beliefs about the self correlated to cognitive performance. These results suggest that self–other differences are produced by both developmental change and environmental opportunities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A test of the golden section hypothesis with elicted constructs.

Dimensions of meaning elicited from Ss were used to test the "golden section" hypothesis, which predicts that when people use bipolar dimensions to make judgments about their personal acquaintances, they will use the evaluatively positive pole an average of 62% of the time. 44 undergraduates completed the Role Construct Repertory Test with 21 acquaintances judged in terms of 18 elicited dimensions. Results support the extension of the golden section to dichotomous judgments with elicited constructs and also to scalar judgments for males. This study provides the 1st direct evidence of the greater perceived usefulness of those constructs that Ss used in the 62/38 proportion. Discussion focuses on implications for the manner in which people use their personal constructions of others. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's concepts of volume and flotation.

Conducted a pilot study in which children (aged 7–9 yrs and 11–13 yrs) were asked to judge which 1 out of 3 wooden blocks would float (or sink), given weight and volume information for each block relative to a block that was known to float (or sink). Analysis of explanations indicated that judgments may have been based on the size–weight illusion. An experiment exploring the basis of flotation judgments was conducted with 14 children aged 7 yrs 1 mo to 9 yrs 6 mo and 16 children aged 11 yrs 4 mo to 14 yrs 11 mo that involved a test for judgment of volume based on information integration theory. Results show that Ss aged 7–24 yrs accurately judged volume by integrating 3 dimensions—width, depth, and height—according to the multiplicative rule. A rule assessment of their flotation judgments showed no age differences in initial rule, with weight rules being most popular. However, after feedback there were marked age effects; the 7–9 yr olds abandoned their initial rule without finding an alternative, and the 11–24 yr olds were generally able to find the correct flotation rule. It is concluded that children aged 7–24 yrs can judge volume but 7–9 yr olds have difficulty with the concept of flotation, possibly because it requires mental comparison of 2 ratios, a task known to be difficult for 7–9 yr olds. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social ties: Subgroup differences in costs and benefits.

Studied social support in response to stressful life events (i.e., whether social ties are stressful as well as supportive and whether there are subgroup differences in the efficacy of social support) among 314 women (mean age 34.7 yrs) with a mean educational level of 10.7 yrs and a mean family income of $7,500–20,000/yr. Ss completed measures of negative affect, perceived stressfulness of life events of significant others, and social support. Selected findings show that (1) the mobilization of social support was associated with better psychological well-being for Ss with greater personal resources; (2) Ss with lower levels of personal resources were more distressed by life events in the lives of their significant others, especially as the number of these events increased; and (3) subgroup effects of interpersonal support and stress on psychological well-being were independent and separate. It is concluded that Ss with greater material and psychological resources derived more beneficial support and suffered less stress from their social ties. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The perception of situational consistency in behaviour: Assessing the actor-observer bias.

Differences in judgments of self and judgments of others in the perceived consistency of behaviour across situations are assessed. Using S-R Inventories, judges made ratings on a number of modes of response to a variety of situations regarding two behaviours, anxiety and hostility. After Jones and Nisbett (1971), it was predicted that self-judgments would show less consistency over situations than judgments of others. Two comparisons were made both involving two different analyses. In Study I the same person was rated by three judges (self, friend, and acquaintance); in Study II one judge rated two different target persons (self and friend). In the major analysis, consistency of behaviour was defined in terms of intrasubject correlations across situations. In a second, supplementary analysis, consistency was described in terms of differences (rather than relationships) between situations. A variance components analysis was applied to each set of data. For the most part, the results were as predicted. A further distinction was noted between judgments of a target by friend and by acquaintance, with acquaintances perceiving greater consistency of behaviour across situations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Etude longitudinale des inférences cinématiques chez le préadolescent et l'adolescent: evolution ou régression.

Investigated kinematic reasoning, the equation of the dimensions of time, space, and velocity. 282 students, aged 8–17 yrs, made judgments about a spatial representation of duration (the mark made by a vibrator on moving tape) and about the velocity of the tape. Results indicate 2 types of errors: (a) errors concerning the inverse relationship between velocity and space (VE errors) and (b) errors regarding the differentiation of duration relative to kinematic frame (T errors). VE type errors were mostly observed at 8–9 yrs of age, while T errors were observed between 10 and 17 yrs of age. An important result was an observed "return" to the T type error (after a time lapse of 1 yr) with Ss producing correct response patterns. Errors are analyzed within the context of a theoretical model of kinematic reasoning. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive and personality characteristics of high school students as predictors of the way they are rated by their teachers: A longitudinal study.

Studied longitudinally, over 6 yrs, the relationship between students' cognitive and personality characteristics, teacher judgments of students, and academic performance. Ss were 142 Caucasian students age 12 yrs, 8 mo originally and 17 yrs, 8 mo when the study was completed. Measures included teacher ratings of student traits, WISC and WAIS subtests, and the Personality Research Form. Results indicate that teacher ratings of students had differential meaning according to the grade level in which they were obtained. 2 possible explanations of the data are given: (a) in making judgments of students, teachers attend to different trait configurations of students depending on the degree of evolution of the teacher-student relationship; and (b) findings may be a function of developmental factors in the students. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Judgements of control over a contingently responsive animation by students with and without learning disabilities.

Examined relations between locus of control (LOC) orientation and assessments of contingencies between one's actions and changes in a simple computerized display. 35 learning disabled students (LDSs; mean age 13.8 yrs) and 23 nondisabled students (NDSs; mean age 13.7 yrs), all males, participated. The Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Scale and the reading subtest (level 2) of the Wide Range Achievement Test–Revised measured LOC and achievement level. LDSs were less sensitive to response probabilities in making judgments of control and expressed greater, and more uniform, confidence in those ratings than did NDSs. These differences were not related to LOC orientation nor the amount of information available to Ss prior to making their judgments. These 2 groups also showed different effects of the presence of random changes as measured both by control judgments and confidence in those judgments. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disability and identity: A study of identity patterns in adolescents with hearing impairments.

Some children with physical disabilities are encouraged to identify exclusively with nondisabled persons, relinquishing any identity with others who have disabilities. The implications of such a personal identification on adjustment were examined by measuring identity choice in 111 students (aged 15–19 yrs) at a state school for persons with hearing impairments. Ss were classified into 3 groups: those with a predominant hearing identity (able-bodied identity), those with a primary deaf identity (disabled identity), and those who identified with both groups (dual identity). Analyses focused on the relationship between the Ss' identity and indicators of the Ss' social relations, self-evaluations, academic achievement, and perceived family acceptance of their disability. Data indicate that an able-bodied identity was consistently associated with poorer outcomes and a dual identity with better outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

La réputation sociale de l'enfant en milieu scolaire.

Studied the social reputations of elementary school children. Ss were 76 2nd-grade (mean age 7.5 yrs), 71 3rd-grade (mean age 8.5 yrs), and 83 4th-grade students (mean age 9.7 yrs). Using the peer nomination technique, Ss were assessed collectively on 8 dimensions requiring both social and academic judgments. A cluster analysis was performed to identify groups with different sociometric profiles. Correlations between peer evaluations and teacher evaluations of Ss' social reputations were determined. (English abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A causal model approach to the symbolic interactionist view of the self-concept.

Examined the symbolic interactionist construct of the reflected self-concept using a causal model based on path analysis and multiple regression. 333 married couples, with husbands aged 20–88 yrs and wives aged 19–91 yrs were randomly selected and interviewed with a self-concept inventory. Measures of the reflected self were marriage partner's self-concept, partner's perception of spouse's evaluation (role taking), and spouse's actual evaluation. It is contended that this analysis was an advance beyond the traditional approach that simply tests for a relation between the self-concept and the actual and perceived evaluations of others. Use of a causal model accurately reflects the theoretical view of the self by emphasizing the process of role taking. Findings indicate that the actual evaluations by spouses did not have a direct effect on Ss' self-concepts but rather an indirect effect mediated via the Ss' perception of their spouses' evaluations of them. It is emphasized that an individual's perception of how he/she appears to others is the process whereby a self-concept becomes defined. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Interviewer perceptions of applicant qualifications: A multivariate field study of demographic characteristics and nonverbal cues.

Eight interviewers' perceptions of 517 applicants (mean age 16.7 yrs) for seasonal employment at a large amusement park were studied by obtaining their ratings of personal style variables, body movements, speech characteristics, and a final judgment on overall qualifications. Analysis of nonverbal clues showed the relative importance of speech characteristics (articulation, proper pauses) and unimportance of personal appearance variables (cleanliness, clothing) when these variables were simultaneously considered. MANOVA and MANCOVA showed a relationship between the race and sex of the applicant, sex of the interviewer, and nonverbal cues. A unique variance for these demographic variables was demonstrated even after education background data and nonverbal cues were controlled. It is concluded that communication skills are primary influences on judgment of qualifications when considered simultaneously with other nonverbal cues and that demographic differences are systematically related to these nonverbal cues and judgments of qualifications. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal efficacy, external locus of control, and perceived contingency of parental reinforcement among depressed, paranoid, and normal subjects.

Hypothesized that different combinations of personal efficacy and outcome expectancies (i.e., locus of control) would characterize the thought structures of normal Ss and of psychiatric patients suffering from distinctly different disorders. 26 normal (mean age 30.1 yrs), 15 depressed, and 22 paranoid Ss (mean age of patients 34.5 yrs) completed scales that measured beliefs in personal efficacy, beliefs that outcomes are controlled either by chance or by powerful others, and perceived contingency of parental reinforcement. Findings show that normals judged themselves to be more efficacious than did psychiatric Ss, depressives expected outcomes to be controlled by chance, and paranoids expected outcomes to be under the control of powerful others. Among the normals, outcome expectancies were strongly associated with personal efficacy, but among the patients, these beliefs were unrelated. Depressives and paranoids equally reported more noncontingent parental reinforcement than did normals. Perceived contingency of parental reinforcement was predictive of outcome expectancies but not of personal efficacy. Data suggest that low personal efficacy may be a distinguishing characteristic of all psychiatric patients, whereas outcome expectancies may determine the specific nature of the psychiatric disorder. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk perceptions and participation in colorectal cancer screening.

Interviewed 124 siblings (mean age 56.4 yrs) of high risk colorectal cancer (CRC) patients and 171 siblings (mean age 58.8 yrs) of average-risk CRC patients to examine the relationship of risk-factor perceptions to perceived susceptibility and participation in a CRC screening test. Results show minimal differences among siblings with respect to perceived susceptibility. Although high-risk siblings were more likely to participate in screening, only 20.2% cited heredity as a risk-increasing factor, and among these siblings, there was no relationship between screening participation and the citation of any specific risk factors, including heredity. Findings suggest that beliefs about risk-increasing factors may be more important determinants of behavior than beliefs about risk-decreasing factors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Experienced psychoanalytically oriented therapists' narrative acounts of their personal therapy: Impacts on professional and personal development.

Examined the impact of personal therapy on the professional and personal development of psychotherapists through in-depth interviews with 5 psychoanalytically oriented psychotherapists (aged 40–50 yrs). An adaptation of the method of consensual qualitative coding was used to study the narrative accounts of therapy experiences leading to the identification 6 domains: (1) importance of personal therapy for therapists; (2) impacts on the professional self: identity; (3) impacts or one's being in the session: process; (4) experiences in previous and current therapy; (5) self in relation to the personal therapists; and (6) mutual and unique influences of didactic learning, supervision, and personal therapy. The authors found that personal therapy is perceived not only as an essential part of the training phase, but as playing an important role in the therapist's ongoing process of individuation and in the development of the ability to use the self, to achieve moment-to-moment authentic relatedness with one's clients. The domains and categories are appended. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)