Five-year survey of ochratoxin A in processed sultanas from Turkey

The results of surveillance for ochratoxin A (OTA) in 1885 samples of sultanas taken during five crop years between 1999 and 2003 are reported. The analytical method was based on extraction with methanol + sodium bicarbonate and clean-up by immunoaffinity column chromatography followed by high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. The limit of detection for OTA was 0.3 µg kg^-1. The results show that 9.3% of the samples contained no detectable levels of OTA, whereas 0.6% had concentrations exceeding 10 µg kg^-1; the remaining 90.3% had levels within the range 0.3-10 µg kg^-1. The overall mean OTA concentration in the total number of 1885 samples taken was 1.36 ± 2.91 µg kg^-1; the overall median was calculated as 0.90 µg kg^-1.     

Ochratoxin A in sultanas from Turkey I: Survey of unprocessed sultanas from vineyards and packing-houses.

A method for the determination of ochratoxin A (OTA) in sultanas from Turkey using extraction with a sodium bicarbonate solution (2% NaHCO3) followed by immunoaffinity clean-up and liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection was used to assess the frequency of occurrence and level of OTA. In-house validation was carried out with spiked samples at levels of 0.15, 1.5, 5.0 and 10 microg kg-1 and average recoveries were 91, 93, 87 and 89%, respectively. The limits of detection and limit of quantification in Turkish sultanas were 0.026 and 0.09 microg kg-1, respectively. A survey for the presence of OTA was carried out on 264 unprocessed sultana samples during the production seasons between 1998 and 2000 collected annually from vineyards and from packing-houses. The analyses of unprocessed sultanas showed that 32.2% of the total number of samples contained no detectable OTA, whereas 9.8% of sultana samples had OTA concentrations above 10 microg kg-1, and the remaining 58% had levels within the range 0.026-10 microg kg-1. There were big differences in median concentrations between years. Considering the year of production, it appears that sultanas produced in 1998 and 2000 showed the lowest incidence of OTA contamination (median<0.02 microg kg-1), whereas 2002 showed the highest incidence (median=4.3 microg kg-1). The overall mean OTA concentration was calculated as 3.4 microg kg-1, and the overall median as 0.9 microg kg-1. Among the samples analysed, the highest detected level of OTA was 54 microg kg-1.     

The production of ochratoxin A and citrinin in barley

The production of ochratoxin A by Aspergillus ochraceus and of ochratoxin A and citrinin by Penicillium viridicatum growing on previously sterilised barley for 200 days at 5, 10 and 20°C and a water activity of 0.85 is reported. A. ochraceus did not grow at 5°C, multiplied slowly at 10°C but did not produce toxin. At 20°C the organism multiplied more quickly and produced ochratoxin after 19 days, which slowly disappeared over the next 150 days. P. viridicatum grew slowly at 5°C but did not produce any toxin. It multiplied at 10°C and produced ochratoxin A which was only detectable during the period from 100 to 150 days. At 20°C both ochratoxin A and citrinin were produced. Ochratoxin A was detected after 10 days and was still present after 240 days, whereas citrinin was produced in large quantities between 118 and 129 days and then rapidly disappeared.     

The effect of chemical treatment on reduction of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in black and white pepper during washing

The effect of 18 different chemicals, which included acidic compounds (sulfuric acid, chloridric acid, phosphoric acid, benzoic acid, citric acid, acetic acid), alkaline compounds (ammonia, sodium bicarbonate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide), salts (acetate ammonium, sodium bisulfite, sodium hydrosulfite, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate) and oxidising agents (hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite), on the reduction of aflatoxins B(1), B(2), G(1) and G(2) and ochratoxin A (OTA) was investigated in black and white pepper. OTA and aflatoxins were determined using HPLC after immunoaffinity column clean-up. Almost all of the applied chemicals showed a significant degree of reduction on mycotoxins (p < 0.05). The lowest and highest reduction of aflatoxin B(1), which is the most dangerous aflatoxin, was 20.5% ± 2.7% using benzoic acid and 54.5% ± 2.7% using sodium hydroxide. There was no significant difference between black and white peppers (p < 0.05).     

The effect of chemical treatment on reduction of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in black and white pepper during washing

The effect of 18 different chemicals, which included acidic compounds (sulfuric acid, chloridric acid, phosphoric acid, benzoic acid, citric acid, acetic acid), alkaline compounds (ammonia, sodium bicarbonate, sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide), salts (acetate ammonium, sodium bisulfite, sodium hydrosulfite, sodium chloride, sodium sulfate) and oxidising agents (hydrogen peroxide, sodium hypochlorite), on the reduction of aflatoxins B₁, B₂, G₁ and G₂ and ochratoxin A (OTA) was investigated in black and white pepper. OTA and aflatoxins were determined using HPLC after immunoaffinity column clean-up. Almost all of the applied chemicals showed a significant degree of reduction on mycotoxins (p?<?0.05). The lowest and highest reduction of aflatoxin B₁, which is the most dangerous aflatoxin, was 20.5%?±?2.7% using benzoic acid and 54.5%?±?2.7% using sodium hydroxide. There was no significant difference between black and white peppers (p?<?0.05).     

The effect of cocoa fermentation and weak organic acids on growth and ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus species

The acidic characteristics of cocoa beans have influence on flavor development in chocolate. Cocoa cotyledons are not naturally acidic, the acidity comes from organic acids produced by the fermentative microorganisms which grow during the processing of cocoa. Different concentrations of these metabolites can be produced according to the fermentation practices adopted in the farms, which could affect the growth and ochratoxin A production by fungi. This work presents two independent experiments carried out to investigate the effect of some fermentation practices on ochratoxin A production by Aspergillus carbonarius in cocoa, and the effect of weak organic acids such as acetic, lactic and citric at different pH values on growth and ochratoxin A production by A. carbonarius and Aspergillus niger in culture media. A statistical difference (ρ<0.05) in the ochratoxin A level in the cured cocoa beans was observed in some fermentation practices adopted. The laboratorial studies demonstrate the influence of organic acids on fungal growth and ochratoxin A production, with differences according to the media pH and the organic acid present. Acetic acid was the most inhibitory acid against A. carbonarius and A. niger. From the point of view of food safety, considering the amount of ochratoxin A produced, fermentation practices should be conducted towards the enhancement of acetic acid, although lactic and citric acids also have an important role in lowering the pH to improve the toxicity of acetic acid.     

The occurrence of ochratoxin A in blue cheese

Evidence for the occurrence of ochratoxin A in blue cheeses is reported for the first time. The development of an accurate and reliable procedure for the extraction of OTA from cheese, as well as the availability of a new sensitive HPLC-FLD method, has allowed us to determine ochratoxin A in complex matrices such as cheeses, even at very low levels (LOD in cheese: 0.02 μg/kg). A good linearity for the OTA concentration, between 0.2 and 2.5 μg/kg, was obtained and no matrix effect was observed in the same concentration range. The mean recovery for OTA was 97%, while the average RSD was 3%, within a spiking range of 0.5–2.0 μg/kg.     

Experiments on the mechanical harvesting of sultanas for drying

Experiments extending over three seasons are described in which Sultana grapes were harvested by hand, by vertical or by horizontal-shake mechanical harvester, and subsequently dried on drying trays or drying racks in the open. Fruit was treated with an alkaline oil-in-water emulsion before spreading and in two seasons modifications to the usual rack-spraying technique were tried. In one season, the canes of some vines were cut one week before mechanical harvest. In general, loss of weight in the dried mechanically harvested sample amounted to 10% or less and one crown of grade was lost, compared with hand-harvested fruit. Although the skin was cracked on many berries, this did not lead to excessive sugar residue on the surface of the dried fruit. It is concluded that good quality light-coloured dried sultanas can be produced after mechanical harvesting if certain measures in vine training, harvesting, transporting and fruit spreading are observed. However, heavy capital expenditure is necessary.     

赭曲毒素A的研究进展

赭曲毒素A对人类及动物健康造成了很大威胁 ,受到了全世界的广泛关注。本文综述了赭曲毒素A的产生菌种、危害及检测方法 ,最后还简单论述了赭曲毒素A的控制方法     

蛋白酶预处理对真丝织物染色性能的影响

用蛋白酶对真丝织物进行预处理,研究其工艺参数对真丝织物活性染料染色后断裂强力、白度以及上染率等性能的影响。通过分析温度、酶浓度、pH值、处理时间等因素对真丝织物性能的影响,设计L₉（4³）正交试验,得出蛋白酶处理真丝织物的较优工艺条件:温度60℃,酶浓度15%（o.w.f）,pH 7,时间60 min。试验结果表明:蛋白酶对真丝织物处理后,其上染率由35%提高到50%,染色后织物的断裂强力与常规工艺差别不大,水洗色牢度变化不明显。说明蛋白酶预处理能有效提高真丝织物活性染料的染色性能。     

牛初乳加工预处理方式对免疫球蛋白活性的影响

以新鲜牛初乳为原料,考察不同的贮藏方法(直接冷冻保存,脱脂牛初乳冷冻保存,乳清冷冻保存)及解冻方法(60℃热水水浴解冻,室温解冻,微波解冻),对牛初乳中免疫球蛋白的提取率和活性的影响。实验结果表明:工业化提取牛初乳中免疫球蛋白时,将生鲜牛初乳从牧场取回后直接放入-20℃冷冻贮藏一个月,解冻时采用60℃水浴加热解冻。     

漆酶预处理对纯棉织物漂白效果的影响

用漆酶对纯棉织物进行预处理，然后对其进行常规双氧水漂白，研究漆酶预处理对漂白效果的影响．结果表明，在预处理30min的条件下，该漆酶最佳应用条件为50℃，pH值4.0～4．5，漆酶用量2g／L．     

European research on ochratoxin A in grapes and wine

European wine production represents about 70% of world production and thus is an important export commodity. Ochratoxin A (OTA) was first detected as a wine contaminant in 1996 and the role of Aspergillus section Nigri and A. carbonarius in OTA production discovered in Europe in 1999. Subsequently Europe-wide surveys have shown that A. carbonarius is predominantly responsible for OTA contamination of grapes, wine and vine fruits. Analyses of wine samples throughout Europe have shown that there is a gradient in OTA concentration with a decrease from red, to rose and to white wines. The latitude of production is an important factor in determining risk from OTA contamination. Some geographic regions in Southern Europe are more prone to contamination with the toxigenic species and OTA. Ochratoxin A has also been found in much higher concentrations (max. 53 mug/kg) in dried vine fruit than in wine suggesting that A. carbonarius can dominate the drying vine fruit ecosystem. There is a significant lack of knowledge in Europe on conducive climatic conditions preharvest and their relationship with levels of risk from OTA contamination in grapes and their fate in wine production. This needs to be integrated with cultivation system to maximise the prevention of OTA entering this food chain.     

免疫学法检测赭曲霉毒素A研究进展

赭曲霉毒素A是曲霉属和青霉属某些真菌次级代谢产物,其毒性大、污染范围广、与人类健康关系密切。对赭曲霉毒素A检测是利用其本身荧光特性进行高灵敏度荧光检测,易受其它本底物荧光干扰,造成检测周期长,成本高;免疫化学分析具有高度特异性、灵敏性和快速简便等优点,在赭曲霉毒素A检测中应用广泛,其中,免疫传感器具有独特专一性和选择性,在赭曲霉毒素A检测领域能发挥更大优势。     

The impact of roasting on the ochratoxin A content of coffee

Roasting coffee led to a drop in the ochratoxin A (OTA) concentration, as measured by the reference method, especially for dark type roasts. The way the beverage was prepared also affected the OTA content, which could paradoxically be higher than that of the initial roasted coffee. Assays on the thermal stability of pure OTA showed that it ought to be found in larger quantities in roasted coffee. This suggested that OTA was masked by reactions with the substrate during roasting. The absence of OTA in green coffee is therefore the best guarantee of safety.     

Natural co-occurrence of ochratoxin A,ochratoxin B and aflatoxins in Sicilian red wines

The natural occurrence of ochratoxin A, ochratoxin B, aflatoxin B₁, aflatoxin B₂, aflatoxin G₁ and aflatoxin G₂ (OTA, OTB, AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, AFG₂) in red wines was investigated by HPLC/FLD after immunoaffinity column clean-up in 57 market samples produced in Sicily (Italy). The results showed a very low incidence of these mycotoxins in analysed samples, confirming the high degree of quality and safety of Sicilian red wines. The results indicated 71.9% and 64.9% positive samples for OTA and OTB respectively, with an average level of 0.13 μg l^–1, well below the European maximum permitted levels (MLs). The aflatoxin most frequently detected in the samples was AFG₁, present in 57.9% of samples, while the other aflatoxins were rarely present. Recovery experiments were carried out on eight mycotoxin-free red wines spiked with OTA, OTB, AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁ and AFG₂ at two different levels. The limits of detection (LODs) in wines were 0.02 µg l^–1 for OTA, 0.04 µg l^–1 for OTB, 0.03 µg l^–1 for AFG₁, AFG₂ and AFB₂, and 0.05 µg l^–1 for AFB₁. A good correlation was found, with good performances in term of precision for the method.     

氯化处理羊毛的染色性能研究

采用二氯异氰脲酸盐(DCCA)对羊毛进行氯化处理,通过扫描电镜和X射线衍射技术研究了处理前后羊毛纤维表面形态结构和结晶度的变化。氯化处理后采用丽雅伦活性染料、兰纳素活性染料、派拉丁1:1型金属络合染料和依素伦1:2型金属络合染料对羊毛织物进行轧染微波固色。对比分析了羊毛织物未经处理和经氯化处理后轧染微波固色的表观得色量、匀染性、透染性、断裂强力和断裂伸长等,并与传统的浸染工艺进行了对比研究。     

预处理对大豆蛋白酶解的影响

以Alcalase碱性内切酶为例 ,研究了不同热处理温度、时间对大豆蛋白酶解率的影响 ,实验表明大豆蛋白经 10 0℃ ,2 0min热处理 ,其相对酶解率达 10 0 %。     

Occurrence of ochratoxin A and citrinin in Czech cereals and comparison of two HPLC methods for ochratoxin A detection

The aims of the study were to obtain information about the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) and citrinin (CIT) in cereals harvested in the Czech Republic and to compare two analytical procedures for detecting OTA. A total of 34 cereal samples, including two matrix reference materials (R-Biopharm, Germany), were analysed. The results were compared with the limit for raw cereal grains used as a foodstuff according to Commission Regulation No. 1881/2006, which allows a maximum OTA level of 5 µg kg^?1. Compared were two methods based on the high-performance liquid chromatography principle, one using the immunoaffinity columns OchraTest? (VICAM) and the second based on solvent partition (PART), both followed by fluorescence detection. The highest OTA contents were found in two barley samples. According to the method employed, the results for the first sample (malting barley) were VICAM = 31.43 µg kg^?1 and PART = 44.74 µg kg^?1. For the second sample (feeding barley) they were VICAM = 48.63 µg kg^?1 and PART = 34.40 µg kg^?1. Two samples of bread wheat had an OTA content approaching the legal limit (VICAM = 4.71 µg kg^?1 and PART = 6.03 µg kg^?1; VICAM = 4.12 µg kg^?1 and PART = 3.95 µg kg^?1). CIT was analysed using the PART method only, and its highest content (93.64 µg kg^?1) was found for the malting barley sample with high OTA content (44.74 µg kg^?1 as analysed using PART).