Parametric optimization and analysis of thermodynamic venting system in liquid hydrogen tank under microgravity

This paper used the lumped vapor model to simulate the self-pressurization and thermodynamic venting process in the cryogenic liquid hydrogen tank with 90% filling rate under microgravity. Based on the orthogonal experiment, twenty-five cases with different parameters were designed. Daily evaporation rate and cooling capacity utilization efficiency were proposed to evaluate the exhaust loss during the jet process and depressurization efficiency during depressurization process. The four parameters of spray bar including exhaust rate, diameter of inner tube of heat exchanger, nozzle length and number of nozzles were optimized and the weight of influence on the daily evaporation rate and cooling capacity utilization efficiency was analyzed. Results showed that nozzle length and number of nozzles played a key role in the daily evaporation rate and cooling capacity utilization efficiency, while diameter of inner tube of heat exchanger had little effect. Under the same mass flow, smaller nozzle length, lower exhaust rate and fewer nozzles could increase the inlet velocity, thereby reducing the daily evaporation rate and improving the cooling capacity utilization efficiency. The thermal stratification could be eliminated well. In addition, arranging two nozzles up and down was more advantageous than arranging a single nozzle in the middle. The research results were useful for improving the efficiency of the thermodynamic venting system (TVS) and extending the propellant storage time in orbit.     

直喷式柴油机高压喷射特性的研究

结合国产６１１０柴油机高压喷射技术的实用性开发，研究了供油系统中喷油泵，高压油管和喷油嘴对喷油压力的影响，并以激光纹影高速摄影和激光粒子尺寸分析仪，测量了喷油压力４０－１００ＭＰａ变化时的喷雾特性。结果表明：实现高压喷射的有效措施是采用多孔数，小孔径喷嘴，小孔径喷嘴在高喷射压力下，喷注的贯穿度和喷雾的破碎期减少，雾化改善。     

高压喷雾碰壁的粒度特性研究

作者采用基于激光衍射原理的Malvern粒径测试仪,在可模拟压缩上止点密度条件下,研究了柴油机泵-管-嘴供油系统下2种孔径喷嘴,在高压喷射近距离垂直碰壁时的粒度和浓度分布特性,对冷壁与热壁的影响作了对比。结果表明,冷碰壁喷雾的特点是燃油碰壁后大量附着壁面,且小孔径时壁面油雾层的浓度及SMD值较小;热碰壁喷雾的显著特点是,高温壁面对油束碰壁后的燃油有“热反溅”作用,小孔径油束碰壁后油滴蒸发及气化的速率远高于大孔径,对燃油蒸发及气化最佳的壁面温度在573K附近。     

Numerical analyses of the impact of plates for thermal stratification inside a storage tank with upper and lower inlet flows

In this paper, numerical analyses have been carried out to describe the velocity and temperature fields inside a storage tank to be used in a solar system under various boundary conditions with upper and lower inlet flows. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of different plate sizes situated opposite the inlet in order to increase the thermal stratification. A numerical model was developed, and validated using experimental results. Two different initial temperature assumptions were taken into account along with a two-layer configuration. Two cases were analysed, the thermocline in the vicinity of the plate and the thermocline in the middle of the tank. In the latter case, the plate diameter had little impact, but moving the thermocline closer to the plates resulted in the diameter having a greater influence. It was also found that larger plates made it possible to preserve stratification with at larger inlet flow rates than the flow rates of the conventional low flow systems. Cold water inflow into the top of the tank was also studied. The influence of the plate diameter for the colder inflow was examined along with two temperature differences between the inlet and the tank. It was found that the diameter of the plate and the distance between the plate and the top of the tank have a significant effect on the temperature stratification within the tank when cold water enters at the top of the tank.     

内/外交叉孔喷嘴内部和近场流动特性的试验

为认识内/外交叉孔喷嘴的内部空穴流动和近场喷雾特性,采用常规圆孔、外交叉孔和内交叉孔三种孔型的喷嘴在不同喷射压力、子喷孔交叉角度及出口中心距下进行了比例放大的喷嘴内部流动与喷雾近场可视化试验。试验结果表明:不同于圆形喷孔的近轴对称射流,内/外交叉孔喷嘴由于燃油的内/外部碰撞冲击作用,射流主要在与两个子喷孔中心线所处平面正交的平面(扩散面)上径向扩散,形成扇形射流。外交叉孔喷嘴喷雾扩散最为显著,其在扩散面上的液滴分散到喷嘴以下180°范围内,内交叉孔喷嘴扩散次之,两者扩散效果均远强于常规圆孔。此外,随喷射压力的提高,常规圆孔喷嘴在0.30MPa左右产生空穴,并迅速发展为水力柱塞流状态;外交叉孔喷嘴也在0.30MPa左右产生空穴,并逐渐发展至喷孔出口附近,但至1.0MPa也未出现水力柱塞流状态;内交叉孔喷嘴内始终无空穴产生。     

Spray characteristics and controlling mechanism of fuel containing CO2

This paper presents studies of spray characteristics and controlling mechanism of fuel containing CO₂. Using diesel fuel containing CO₂ gas, experiments were conducted on diesel hole-type nozzles and simple nozzles. The steady spray and transient spray characteristics were observed and measured by instantaneous shadowgraphy, high-speed photography, phase Doppler anemometry (PDA) and LDSA respectively. The effects of CO₂ concentration in the fuel, the injection pressure, the nozzle L/D ratio, surrounding gas pressure and temperature on the atomization behavior and spray pattern were evaluated. The results show that the injection of fuel containing CO₂ can greatly improve the atomization and produce a parabolic-shaped spray; and the CO₂ gas concentration, surrounding gas pressure, temperature and nozzle configuration have dominant influences on spray characteristics of the fuel containing CO₂. New insight into the controlling mechanism of atomization of the fuel containing CO₂ was provided.     

Effect of Impingement Density and Nozzle to Target Distance on Spray Cooling of Steel Plate—An Experimental Investigation

In the steel making industry, high heat fluxes are obtained using effective cooling techniques such as spray impingement cooling. Spray impingement technique involve factors like droplet size, spray height and spray angle, impingement density, and nozzle geometry rendering it very difficult to measure the effects of individual parameters. In the present study, the cooling rate of the plate was experimentally investigated using distilled water as coolant in 3 pressurized nozzles for spray over the surface of the steel plate at elevated temperatures and the behavior of plate temperature with time was tabulated. Cooling curves were generated for different and varying spray parameters like water pressures, nozzle tip to surface distance, and impingement density. It was observed that the cooling rate at the stagnation zone was strongly dependent on the water pressures and nozzle tip to surface distances with maximum cooling rates reaching within 1–2 seconds after the impingement. The average impingement density increased with increase in water pressure and the cooling rate reduces at higher pressures and nozzle tip to surface distances.     

Three-dimensional analysis and investigation of the thermal and hydrodynamic behaviors of cylindrical storage tanks

A numerical analysis of the three-dimensional temperature and velocity fields in horizontal cylindrical storage tanks was performed. The phenomena of laminar natural convection and vertical stratification of temperature were considered. The developed three-dimensional transient computing code solves the equations of energy and momentum through the finite volume method. The simulation of fluid cooling process inside the tank showed the formation of stratified temperature profiles that matched those obtained experimentally. Based on several simulations, a correlation was proposed for determining the degree of thermal stratification inside the tank regarding thermal and geometrical parameters. From this correlation, an expression was proposed to predict the fluid temperature profiles along the time. This information is very important in many applications, such as in thermosiphon solar water heating systems, where the global efficiency of the system increases with the thermal stratification degree of the working fluid. Another case studied considered that the tank was connected to solar collectors, aiming at investigating the influence of the inlet jet position with and without a baffle plate on the preservation of the thermal stratification. Results showed that the baffle plate modified the velocity and temperature fields close to the inlet jet, allowing a better thermal stratification. Also the suitable choice of the inlet jet position allowed the formation of a more effective thermal stratification. Some other aspects of the internal dynamics of this kind of storage tank are presented and discussed. For the cases studied, the inlet jet next to the top led to a greater thermal stratification. However, it was verified that when the inlet jet temperature remains constant for a long period of time, and thus its temperature approaches the temperature of the water inside the tank, for the same height, the temperature profiles obtained become similar to the case of the inlet located at usual height of 2/3 of the diameter.     

An experimental and numerical study of thermal stratification in a horizontal cylindrical solar storage tank

The thermal behaviour of a horizontal cylindrical storage tank has been investigated both experimentally and numerically. Four sets of experiments have been carried out where cold water is injected into the bottom of the tank with three different initial thermal fields. The first one is the tank with initial thermal stratification with bottom temperature the same as the inflow temperature. The second set is the tank with the initial thermal stratification, the bottom being at a relatively higher temperature than the inflow temperature. The third set is an initially heated isothermal tank and the fourth is the same as the first set of experiments except that the straight tube inlet nozzle is replaced by a 30° downward bent divergent conical tube. The above experiments show that better thermal stratification can be obtained using the divergent conical tube as the inlet nozzle due to the diffusion effect of the nozzle. Also a slight improvement in the tank performance has been achieved in the second set of experiments when the initial bottom temperature of the tank is higher than the injected cold water temperature. To check the accuracy of the experimental results two different types of one-dimensional numerical models, namely Turbulent Mixing Model and Displacement Mixing Model have been developed and the results are compared with the experiments. This comparison indicates that the numerical results are in good agreement with the experiments especially at the top of the tank.     

Effects of ultra-high injection pressure and micro-hole nozzle on flame structure and soot formation of impinging diesel spray

The effects of ultra-high injection pressure (P_inj = 300 MPa) and micro-hole nozzle (d = 0.08 mm) on flame structure and soot formation of impinging diesel spray were studied with a high speed video camera in a constant volume combustion vessel. Two-color pyrometry was used to measure the line-of-sight soot temperature and concentration with two wavelengths of 650 and 800 nm. A flat wall vertical to the injector axis is located 30 mm away from the injector nozzle tip to generate impinging spray flame. Three injection pressures of 100, 200 and 300 MPa and two injector nozzles with diameters of 0.16 and 0.08 mm were used. With the conventional injector nozzle (0.16 mm), ultra-high injection pressure generates appreciably lower soot formation. With the micro-hole nozzle (0.08 mm), impinging spray flame shows much smaller size and lower soot formation at the injection pressure of 100 MPa. The soot formation is too weak to be detected with the micro-hole nozzle at injection pressures of 200 and 300 MPa. With eliminating the impact of injection rate on soot level, both ultra-high injection pressure and micro-hole nozzle have an obvious effect on soot reduction. Soot formation characteristics of impinging spray flame were compared with those of free spray flame using both the conventional and micro-hole nozzles. With the conventional nozzle, flat wall impingement deteriorates soot formation significantly. While soot formation characteristics of free spray flame with the micro-hole nozzle are not altered obviously by flat wall. Liquid length of the 0.16 mm nozzle is longer than the impingement distance and liquid length of the 0.08 mm nozzle is shorter than the impingement distance. Liquid impingement upon the wall is responsible for the deteriorated soot level of impinging flame compared to that of free flame with the conventional nozzle.     

分层-掺混切换式蓄热水箱热特性实验及评价研究

稳定分层、充分掺混是蓄热水箱实现高效供暖和恒温出水2种功能的重要手段。该研究设计一种分层-掺混一体式蓄热水箱,可实现2种功能的有效切换,满足分层高效供暖和恒温生活热水在不同时段、不同季节的灵活需求。搭建一套蓄热水箱热力学特性测试实验系统,利用分层效率、效率等蓄热水箱热性能评价指标,研究不同尺寸、流量、温度下分层-掺混式蓄热水箱的热力学性能及动态响应特征。以125 L的实验蓄热水箱为例,结果表明：在分层模式下,热分层速率、稳定性显著优于常规水箱,效率和分层效率明显提高,效率可达90%以上;在掺混模式下,掺混速度明显提高,分层效率迅速降低到0.10,实现了蓄热水箱的完全混合,结果对分层-掺混双效水箱的开发与应用具有一定指导。     

柴油机喷嘴喷雾响声产生机理的研究

通过对两个不同密封座面直径的喷嘴分别在手压式喷油器校验器上和喷油泵试验台上所做的对比试验进行分析后 ,解释了喷油器在手压式喷油器校验器上检验时发出响声产生的机理。通过数据的频谱分析发现 ,不同的供油系统参数可以使喷油器产生不同频率的响声     

Thermal design analysis of a 1 L cryogenic liquid hydrogen tank for an unmanned aerial vehicle

Thermal design analysis of a 1-L cryogenic liquid hydrogen storage tank without vacuum insulation for a small unmanned aerial vehicle was carried out in the present study. To prevent excess boil-off of cryogenic liquid hydrogen, the storage tank consisted of a 1-L inner vessel, an outer vessel, insulation layers and a vapor-cooled shield. For a cryogenic storage tank considered in this study, the appropriate heat inleak was allowed to supply the boil-off gas hydrogen to a proton electrolyte membrane fuel cell as fuel. In an effort to accommodate the hydrogen mass flow rate required by the fuel cell and to minimize the storage tank volume, a thermal analysis for various insulation materials was implemented here and their insulation performances were compared. The present thermal analysis showed that the Aerogel thermal insulations provided outstanding performance at the non-vacuum atmospheric pressure condition. With the Aerogel insulation, the tank volume for storing 1-L liquid hydrogen at 20 K could be designed within a storage tank volume of 7.2 L. In addition, it was noted that the exhaust temperature of boil-off hydrogen gas was mainly affected by the location of a vapor-cooled shield as well as thermal conductivity of insulation materials.     

湿式脱硫塔除雾器冲洗喷嘴均匀度研究

国内外除雾器冲洗喷嘴一般均采用实心锥喷嘴,均匀度是考核喷嘴性能的重要指标之一。试验研究了冲洗喷嘴均匀度的变化规律,结果表明：喷嘴芯旋度对均匀度影响较大;选择喷嘴优化方案时,优先选择直径方向均匀度好的方案。     

喷嘴结构对电控喷油器喷油规律影响的试验研究

在喷油泵综合实验台上采用先进的EFS瞬时喷油量测量仪,对8套不同结构参数的共轨喷油器喷嘴进行了喷油规律的测试,研究了喷孔数、喷孔直径、喷孔长度以及喷孔夹角等参数对喷油规律的影响。     

Application of spray impingement technique for characterisation of high pressure sprays from multi-hole diesel nozzles

An attempt has been made to study and characterise the performance of two multi-hole nozzles of different nozzle hole geometry using the impingement technique. The technique was able to characterise the nozzle geometry and the near nozzle spray characteristics. The transients of the needle motion, dynamics of the pressure fluctuations were all reflected in the momentum flux measurements. The impingement distance had no significant effect on the derived injected fuel mass and the nozzle discharge coefficient. The momentum of the spray was observed to be strongly dependant on the fluctuations of the injection pressure but the average nozzle discharge coefficient for an orifice was not significantly influenced by different injection pressures. Numerous transients were observed to occur in the spray parameters over a single injection cycle and the transients in the spray were unique for an orifice and varied from one orifice to another in the same nozzle. This technique proves to be a vital tool for predicting the transient performance of high pressure nozzle flows.     

Spherical-shaped ice particle production by spraying water in a vacuum chamber

A theoretical and experimental study was performed to examine the water spray evaporation method for ice particle production. The conditions for the formation of ice particles were investigated theoretically by the diffusion-controlled evaporation model. The prediction by the model was proved to agree relatively well with experiments. The production of cold storage heat will increase almost proportionally to the number of spray nozzles because no substantial difference was found in the mean droplet size of the overlapped sprays from twin nozzles. Finally, based on the results, the vacuum chamber was designed, and spherical ice particles of size below 300 μm were experimentally obtained by spraying water droplets of ambient temperature in the vacuum chamber where pressure is maintained below the freezing point of water. From the experiment for producing ice particles, it was found that the spray flow rate influences the performance of the system more than the position of spray nozzle.     

Experimental characterisation of a thermal energy storage system using temperature and power controlled charging

The experimental set-up and technical aspects for charging a thermal energy storage (TES) of a proposed solar cooker at constant temperature and variable electrical power are presented. The TES is developed using a packed pebble bed. An electrical hot plate simulates the concentrator which heats up oil circulating through a copper coil absorber charging the TES system. A computer program to acquire data for monitoring the storage system and to maintain a nearly constant outlet charging temperature is developed using Visual Basic. The input power to the hot plate is also controlled to simulate the variation of the daily solar radiation by using another Visual Basic program. A combined internal model control (IMC) and proportional, integral and derivative (PID) temperature control structure is tested on the TES system under varying conditions and its performance is reasonable within a few degrees of the set temperature points. Results of the charging experiments are used to characterise the storage system. The different experiments indicate various degrees of stratification in the storage tank.     

Heat transfer characteristics of spray cooling in a closed loop

A closed loop spray cooling test setup is established for the cooling of high heat flux heat sources. Eight miniature nozzles in a multi-nozzle plate are used to generate a spray array targeting at a 1 × 2 cm² cooling surface. FC-87, FC-72, methanol and water are used as the working fluids. Thermal performance data for the multi-nozzle spray cooling in the confined and closed system are obtained at various operating temperatures, nozzle pressure drops (from 0.69 to 3.10 bar) and heat fluxes. It is exhibited that the spray cooler can reach the critical heat fluxes up to 90 W/cm² with fluorocarbon fluids and 490 W/cm² with methanol. For water, the critical heat flux is higher than 500 W/cm². Air purposely introduced in the spray cooling system with FC-72 fluid has a significant influence on heat transfer characteristics of the spray over the cooling surface.     

Numerical study of the impact on high-pressure and evaporating spray behavior of nozzle cavitation at typical diesel engine conditions

In order to more accurately reproduce diesel sprays a strategy including measurement of nozzle inlet pressure at the realistic diesel injection condition, modeling of nozzle cavitating flow and detailed coupling of nozzle exit flow and spray was presented, moreover, the validity of this strategy was firstly verified against the quantitative spray data obtained by planar laser induced exciplex fluorescence (PLIEF) technique. Based on the above strategy, the effect of cavitation phenomenon on spray formation at the typical diesel engine condition was further evaluated. The final numerical results mainly clarified that the contribution of cavitation phenomena to primary breakup is quite appreciable, and subsequently the evolution of the high-pressure and evaporating diesel spray structure greatly changes as cavitation occurs inside fuel injection nozzles. Moreover, evaluating the effects of cavitation phenomena on realistic diesel spray cannot be only confined to primary breakup or near-nozzle field.