Tetragonality and the distribution of carbon atoms in the Fe–C martensite: Molecular-dynamics simulation

In the statistical theory of the ordering of carbon atoms in the z sublattice of martensite, the most important role is played by the parameter of the strain interaction of carbon atoms λ₀, which determines the critical temperature of the bcc–bct transition. The values of this parameter (6–11 eV/atom) obtained in recent years by the methods of computer simulation differ significantly from the value λ₀ = 2.73 eV/atom obtained by A. G. Khachaturyan. In this article, we calculated the value of λ₀ by two methods based on the molecular-dynamics simulation of the ordering of carbon atoms in the lattice of martensite at temperatures of 500, 750, 900, and 1000 K in a wide range of carbon concentrations, which includes c_crit. No tails of ordering below c_crit have been revealed. It has been shown analytically that there is an inaccuracy in the Khachaturyan theory of ordering for the crystal in an elastic environment. After eliminating this inaccuracy, no tails of the order parameter appear; the tetragonality changes jumpwise from η = 0 to η_crit = 0.75 at c_crit = 2.9kT/λ₀ instead of η_crit = 0.5 and c_crit= 2.77kT/λ₀ for an isolated crystal. Upon the simulation, clustering of carbon atoms was revealed in the form of platelike pileups along {102} planes separated by flat regions where no carbon atoms were present. The influence of short-range order in the arrangement of neighboring carbon atoms on the thermodynamics of ordering is discussed.     

A model for the prediction of lattice parameters of iron–carbon austenite and martensite

Prediction of lattice parameters of interstitial iron–carbon austenites and martensites as a function of carbon concentration and temperature are given. The model is based on the two assumptions that the change in lattice parameters of the pure Fe phase is due to the occupation by carbon atoms to the octahedral holes in the fcc austenite and the bct martensite; and on the relative change in length and vacancy concentration at the lattice sites that are in thermal equilibrium. The predicted lattice parameters of the Fe–C martensites are in a good agreement with the experimental data. However, the preparation procedures of the austenites at room temperature, causes crystal defects thereby dropping the experimental values by 0.25% from the purely ideal predicted values. The model also yield the tetragonality (c/a) of the martensite as a function of C atoms/100 Fe atoms, defined by the ideal ratio c/a = 1 + 0.01X_C.     

Crystallographic analysis of the FCC → BCC martensitic transformation in high-carbon steel

Based on the phenomenological crystallographic theory of martensitic transformations, the following crystallographic characteristics of the tetragonal martensite in high-carbon steel have been calculated: orientation relationships between the crystal lattices of the bct martensite and fcc austenite; the magnitude and direction of the macroscopic shear; the habit plane; the angle and the axis of rotation of the crystal lattice of the martensite. The calculation was performed for three variants of lattice deformation: Bain deformation; two-shear Kurdjumov-Sachs deformation; and the deformation we suggested upon the analysis of the fcc-bcc transformation. In the last variant, a minimum rotation of the crystal lattice of martensite is required; consequently, this variant is closest to the real mechanism of the martensitic transformation. An expression has been derived that describes the interrelation between the degree of tetragonality of the crystal lattice of martensite and the magnitude of the shear deformation of the lattice. It has been shown that the 12 crystal-lographically equivalent variants of shear upon the formation of the lattice of the tetragonal martensite form three groups in each of which the martensite has the same tetragonality axis. For each variant of the shear, we have two equivalent variants of deformation of the martensite with invariant lattice. This results in 24 variants of orientation relationships.     

EFFECT OF MARTENSITE ORDERING ON SME IN A Cu-Zn-Al ALLOY

The correlation between the shape memory effect(SME)and the ordering degree inmartensite formed through various heat-treatment processes,e.g.ice water quenching,step-quenching and aging etc.,has been studied in a Cu-26Zn-4Al alloy.The martensite or-dering degree is estimated by △d,the spacing difference of some pairs of diffracting planeswith indices satisfying a relation of(h_1~2-h_2~2)/3=(k_2~2-k_1~2)/n(n=1 for 9R martensite,n=4for 18R martensite).M 18R martensite is obtained from step-quenching,in which the valueof △d increases with the holding duration of step-quenching,and the shape recoveryrate η increases synchronouslly.9R martensite is obtained from direct water-quenching,thevalue of △d is quite large and SME is also good at just quenching state.But both △dand η decrease continuously with aging time at room temperature.This stabilization phe-nomenon of martensite is explained by the observation of TEM lattice fringe image,and itmay be attributed to the clustering of quenched-in supersaturated vacancies at(001)_M close-packed plane in martensite and decreasing the ordering degree.A reduction in△d and η occuring in the specimens on step-quenching or aging at higher temperature,which may be related to the precipitation of the α-phase and the enrichment of solute atoms,decreases the ordering degree.     

Thermodynamic analysis of the formation of tetragonal bainite in steels

In the articles of Bkhadeshia, a new class of high-strength steels based on the structure of carbidefree bainite with an enhanced carbon content has been developed. According to Bkhadeshia, the main factor responsible for the high solubility of carbon is the occurrence of a tetragonality of the bainite lattice. To check this effect, in this article, the theory of tetragonality of martensite of iron alloys developed by Zener and Khachaturyan was applied to bainite under the assumption that the precipitation of carbides is prohibited. Equations for the chemical potentials of carbon and iron in austenite and in tetragonal ferrite have been derived. The equilibrium of these phases has been considered, and the calculations of the boundary concentrations of carbon and iron at different temperatures (300–1000 K) and at different parameters of the deformation interaction λ₀ have been performed. The rigorous calculations confirmed Bkhadeshia’s hypothesis that the suppression of the carbide formation during the formation of bainite leads to an increase in the carbon solubility in the bcc phase.     

A new type of FCT martensite phase in single-crystalline Fe3Pt Invar alloy

Martensitic transformation in a highly ordered Fe₃Pt has been investigated by magnetization and X-ray diffraction measurements. We confirmed that a new type of face-centered tetragonal (FCT) martensite phase appears below 60 K in Fe₃Pt with a degree of order S = 0.88. The tetragonality c/a gradually increases with decreasing temperature, and is approximately 1.005 at 10 K. This is in contrast to the tetragonality c/a < 1 generally observed in the FCT martensite with a degree of order less than 0.8. The spontaneous magnetization increases in association with the transformation.     

Ab initio Computer Simulation of Carbon–Carbon Interactions for Various Spacings in BCC and BCT Lattices of Ferrite and Martensite

The ab initio computer simulation of lattice parameters and local structure distortions caused by interstitial carbon atoms in the iron-carbon system has been carried out using WIEN2k software. For the calculations, the full-potential method of linearized augmented plane waves (LAPWs) taking into account the generalized gradient approximation of PBE–GGA was used in a supercell of 54 iron atoms with periodic boundary conditions. The carbon dissolution energy has been found to be 0.85 eV for bcc iron, and 0.79 eV for bct iron. The carbon–carbon interaction energies in the ferromagnetic bct iron have been calculated. It has been found that accounting for tetragonal distortions considerably changes the interaction energy of carbon atoms in comparison with that of the bcc iron. Both the maximum degree of tetragonality of iron and the maximum attraction of carbon atoms have been observed for the case of carbon atoms placed in octahedral pores of the same type. If carbon atoms are in different types of octahedral pores, the tetragonal distortion of the lattice is weak. The obtained results are in good agreement with the Zener–Khachaturyan hypothesis and experimental data of Kurdyumov.     

Electron Microscopic Study of the Structure of Tetragonal Martensite in In–4.5% Cd Alloy

In this work, the formation of a packet structure composed of colonies of lamellar plates separated by twin boundary {101}_fct in In–4.5 wt % Cd alloy upon cooling below the fcc → fct martensitic transition temperature has been shown using the methods of metallography, X-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, and EBSD analysis. Two neighboring lamellae differ from each other by the direction of their tetragonality axes. Using ЕВSD analysis, it has been established that neighboring packets always contain three types of tetragonal martensite lamellae, which are in twin positions and differ from each other by the direction of their tetragonality axes. In turn, each martensite lamella consists of a set of smaller lamellae, which are in twin positions. After the cycle of fct → fcc → fct transitions, the alloy recrystallizes with a decrease in the grain size by several times compared with the initial structure such that the size of packets and the length and width of martensitic lamellae in a packet correlate with a change in the size of an alloy grain.     

Structural transformations in quenched Fe–Ga alloys

It has been speculated that the large increase in magnetostriction in Fe–Ga alloys results from local short-range ordering of the Ga atoms along specific crystallographic directions in the disordered Fe structure. The structural transitions associated with different cooling rates from the high temperature disordered state were investigated with X-ray diffraction of oriented single crystals of Fe–19 at% Ga. Results are presented for long-range ordering during slow cooling and indirect evidence of local short-range ordering of Ga atoms in the disordered state when the alloys are quenched is also presented. In the latter case, the short-range ordering of Ga atoms leads to a tetragonal distortion of the lattice. The dependence of the magnetostrictive response of Fe–Ga alloys on thermal history has been found to be directly related to these structural transformations in Fe–19 at% Ga alloys and experimental support for the proposed magnetostriction model based on Ga–Ga pairing along [100] crystallographic directions is presented.     

Characterization of individual retained austenite grains and their stability in low-alloyed TRIP steels

In situ three-dimensional (3-D) X-ray diffraction experiments have been performed at a synchrotron source on low-alloyed multiphase TRIP steels containing 0.25 wt.% Si and 0.44 wt.% Al and produced with different bainitic holding times, in order to assess the influence of the bainitic transformation on the thermal stability of individual austenite grains with respect to their martensitic transformation. A detailed characterization of the austenite grain volume distribution at room temperature was performed as a function of the prior bainitic holding time. In addition, the martensitic transformation behaviour of individual metastable grains was studied in situ during cooling to a temperature of 100 K. Both the carbon content and the grain volume play a key role in the stability of the austenite grains below 15 μm³, while the carbon content exerts the dominant effect in the stability of the bigger grains. Measurements also suggest that the tetragonality of the thermally formed martensite is suppressed.     

母相晶粒度和有序度对含硼Cu—Zn—Al合金形状记忆效应的影响

本文研究了母相晶粒度和有序度对Cu-25.62Zn-3.97Al-0.0018B(wt-％)记忆合金形状回复的影响。试样的回复量通过圆弧弯曲法测定。建立了回复率与有序度、晶粒尺寸、晶界影响区宽度、试样变形时的应力和临界切应力之间的数学关系。形状记忆效应随晶粒尺寸变化出现极大值,随有序参数增大而线性上升,与试验结果相符。     

An assessment of the influence of complex stress states on martensite start temperature

In the present investigation a general model for predicting the influence of a complex stress state on the martensite start temperature of polycrystalline materials is proposed. An analytical equation linking the martensite start temperature and the principal stresses has been derived. It has been established that the martensite start temperature depends only on maximum and minimum principal stresses and is independent of the intermediate principal stress. Analytical relationships for the habit plane orientation of the first martensite plates to form have also been derived. The possible habit planes were found to be parallel to the direction of the intermediate principal stress. In cases where the magnitude of the stresses acting leads to relatively small changes in martensite start temperature, the general model can be simplified so that the shift in martensite start temperature can be presented as a linear function of maximum and minimum principal stresses.     

INFLUENCE OF GRAIN SIZE AND ORDERING DEGREE OF PARENT PHASE ON SME IN A CuZnAl ALLOY CONTAINING BORON

The influence of grain size and ordering degree of the parent phase on the shape memory re-covery in a Cu-25.62Zn-3.97Al-0.0018B(wt-%)memory alloy is investigated.Amathematical relationship is set up between the recovery ratio and ordering degree,probabili-ty of atoms at their ordered sites,grain size,the thickness of the grain boundary affected re-gions,the stress during deformation,as well as the critical shear stress.Shape memory effectreaches a maximum with varying grain size and increases linearly with increasing orderingparameter,which agrees well with experimental results.     

Influence of interface mobility on the evolution of austenite–martensite grain assemblies during annealing

The quenching and partitioning (Q&P) process is a new heat treatment for the creation of advanced high-strength steels. This treatment consists of an initial partial or full austenitization, followed by a quench to form a controlled amount of martensite and an annealing step to partition carbon atoms from the martensite to the austenite. In this work, the microstructural evolution during annealing of martensite–austenite grain assemblies has been analyzed by means of a modeling approach that considers the influence of martensite–austenite interface migration on the kinetics of carbon partitioning. Carbide precipitation is precluded in the model, and three different assumptions about interface mobility are considered, ranging from a completely immobile interface to the relatively high mobility of an incoherent ferrite–austenite interface. Simulations indicate that different interface mobilities lead to profound differences in the evolution of microstructure that is predicted during annealing.     

Low-temperature martensitic transformation in tool steels in relation to their deep cryogenic treatment

The low-temperature martensitic transformation in steel X153CrMoV12 containing (mass%) 1.55C, 11.90Cr, 0.70V, 0.86Mo is studied using dilatometry, Mössbauer spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, mechanical spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy. Some additional measurements were carried out on steel X220CrMoV13-4. It is shown that, in contrast to the widely known absence of martensitic transformation during deep cryogenic treatment, this transformation occurs with isothermal kinetics within the temperature range of ?100 down to ?170 °C with its largest intensity near ?150 °C. No transformation is observed at ?196 °C. The remarkable features of the isothermal martensitic transformation are: (i) the plastic deformation, which is explained by the absence of ageing of martensite at low temperatures; and (ii) the abnormally low tetragonality of martensite. In contrast to existing interpretations, the abnormally low c/a ratio is interpreted in terms of the capture of immobile carbon atoms by gliding dislocations during plastic deformation at low temperatures. A recommendation is proposed for optimizing the deep cryogenic treatment of tool steels.     

Effect of welding parameters on residual stress in type 420 martensitic stainless steel

Abstract

The effect of welding parameters on residual stress induced by shrinkage of weldment and metallurgical phase transformation in type 420 martensitic stainless steel has been investigated. In this study, type 1018 low carbon steel was adopted as the base metal and type 420 martensitic stainless steel was used for the filler metal during submerged arc welding. The thermal cycles at various locations were recorded and dilatometry was used to examine the martensite phase transformation temperatures. The experimental results show that the residual stress increased with the heat input during welding. Using a higher welding heat input increased the amount of heat going into the weldment and elevated the martensite phase transformation temperature. Residual stresses could not be significantly reduced by increasing preheat (interpass) temperature while welding. Using higher preheat temperature conditions could elevate the equilibrium temperature and the martensite phase transformation temperature and increased the heat input to the weldment.     

Time-dependent synchrotron X-ray diffraction on the austenite decomposition kinetics in SAE 52100 bearing steel at elevated temperatures under tensile stress

We have studied the decomposition kinetics of the metastable austenite phase present in quenched-and-tempered SAE 52100 steel by in situ high-energy synchrotron X-ray diffraction experiments at elevated temperatures of 200–235 °C under a constant tensile stress. We have observed a continuous decomposition of austenite into ferrite and cementite. The decomposition kinetics is controlled by the long-range diffusion of carbon atoms into the austenite ahead of the moving austenite/ferrite interface. The presence of a tensile stress of 295 MPa favours the carbon diffusion in the remaining austenite, so that the activation energy for the overall process decreases from 138–148 to 82–104 kJ mol^?1. Before the austenite starts to decompose, a significant amount of carbon atoms partition from the surrounding martensite phase into the metastable austenite grains. This carbon partitioning takes place simultaneously with the carbide precipitation due to the over-tempering of the martensite phase. As the austenite decomposition proceeds gradually at a constant temperature and stress, the elastic strain in the remaining austenite grains continuously decreases. Consequently, the remaining austenite grains act as a reinforcement of the ferritic matrix at longer isothermal holding times. The texture evolution in the constituent phases reflects both significant grain rotations and crystal orientation relationships between the parent austenite phase and the newly formed ferritic grains.     

Fe-Mn-Si-Cr-Ni形状记忆合金约束下相变的电阻原位分析

通过同步测量约束加热和冷却过程中合金的电阻率和回复应力与温度的关系，对Fe-Mn-Si-Cr-Ni形状记忆合金约束下的转变过程进行了详细研究。结果表明，变形约束加热后的冷却过程中，回复应力随温度降低而增加。当回复应力增加到大于合金的屈服强度时，将首先发生塑性变形；然后随温度的进一步降低，回复应力到达应力诱发Е马氏体相变的临界应力时，回复应力将诱发Е马氏体相变，导致回复应力随温度的降低而下降。塑性变形和应力诱发Е马氏体相变都将显著松弛回复应力，降低合金冷却到室温时的回复应力。建立了合金加热和冷却过程中回复应力的方程。提出了该记忆合金管接头成分设计原则。     

冷却介质对不同碳含量合金钢淬火组织及性能的影响

以20CrMnTi齿轮钢为模型,设计制备了不同碳含量及合金成分的试样,以10％NaCl水溶液与液氮作为淬火冷却介质.分析探讨了试样淬火后微观组织形貌与宏观硬度的对应关系,以及不同冷却速度对其组织转变的影响.结果表明:采用10％NaCl水溶液作为淬火介质时,低中碳试样的组织为典型板条马氏体,高碳试样微观组织中保留了大量残...     

Design concept and material demand characteristics of rail

In order to improve fatigue strength in welded joints, low transformation-temperature welding wire has been developed in which residual tensile stress can be reduced. In application of the low transformation-temperature welding wire, the prevention of cold cracking without preheating in high strength steel welded joints is expected and examined from the control of residual tensile stress. However, it is expected that residual stress distribution in a welded joint can be suggested by numerical analysis, because the residual stress cannot be measured simply and non-distractively.

In this report, martensite transformation behaviour such as Ms point, transformation expansion, and so on is measured firstly by the Formaster test.

And temperature dependence of several mechanical properties was measured in full-austenite and full-martensite microstructures, and temperature dependence of mechanical properties was estimated in dual phase microstructure of austenite and martensite.

By these data, numerical analysis was carried out and martensite transformation behaviour was compared with measured and calculated results in a rigid model test. From the comparison, it was suggested that transformation superplasticity had to be considered in numerical analysis.

Next, the increase of Ms point due to transformation induced plasticity was guessed from the comparison with measured data by laser speckle measurement and calculated data under transformation superplasticity consideration.

From the all results, it was found that the measured transformation behavior and residual stress had good agreement with the calculated results under transformation superplasticity and transformation induced plasticity considerations.