Fatty Acid Composition of Freshwater Wild Fish in Subalpine Lakes: A Comparative Study

In this study, the proximate and fatty acid compositions of the muscle tissue of 186 samples of fish belonging to fifteen species of freshwater fish harvested in subalpine lakes (bleak, shad, crucian carp, whitefish, common carp, pike, black bullhead, burbot, perch, Italian roach, roach, rudd, wels catfish, chub and tench) were investigated. Most of the fish demonstrated a lipid content in the fillet lower than 2.0 g 100 g^?1 wet weight (range 0.6–9.7). A strong relationship between feeding behavior and fatty acid composition of the muscle lipids was observed. Planktivorous fish showed the lowest amounts of n‐3 fatty acids (p < 0.05), but the highest monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) contents, in particular 18:1n‐9. Conversely, carnivorous fish showed the highest amounts of saturated fatty acids and n‐3 fatty acids (p < 0.05), but the lowest MUFA contents. Omnivorous fish showed substantial proportions of n‐3 fatty acids and the highest contents of n‐6 fatty acids. Principal component analysis showed a distinct separation between fish species according to their feeding habits and demonstrated that the most contributing trophic markers were 18:1n‐9, 18:3n‐3, 22:6n‐3 and 20:4n‐6. The quantitative amounts n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid in muscle tissues varied depending on the fish species, the lipid content and the feeding habits. Some species were very lean, and therefore would be poor choices for human consumption to meet dietary n‐3 fatty acid requirements. Nevertheless, the more frequently consumed and appreciated fish, shad and whitefish, had EPA and DHA contents in the range 900–1,000 mg 100 g^?1 fresh fillet.     

Unexploited Thapsia garganica,Orlaya maritima,and Retama raetam Seeds: Potential Sources of Unsaturated Fatty Acid and Natural Antioxidants

Total lipid contents, fatty acid compositions, phenolic profiles and antioxidants activities of seeds from Thapsia garganica, Orlaya maritima, and Retama raetam were investigated. The oil values were more than 26 %, except seeds of R. raetam (ca. 3 %). Unsaturated fatty acids accounted for the majority of the fatty acids (more than 75 %). Oleic and linoleic acid were the predominant fatty acids. Total phenolic compounds (24–104 mg GAE g^?1 DR), total flavonoids (4–102 mg QE g^?1g DR), total tannins (28–85 mg GAE g^?1 DR) and condensed tannins (0.62–131 mg CE g^?1 DR) were also determined. The antioxidant activities using different assays were evaluated. The predominant detected classes were the phenolic acids (42–85 %) and the flavonoids (11–48 %). The major phenolic acids were caffeic, trans‐4‐hydroxy‐3‐methoxycinnamic, p‐coumaric, and gallic acid. The predominant flavonoids were quercetin, luteolin, naringin, apigenin, and kaempferol. This study brings attention to the medicinal importance of these species as a source of oil and antioxidant molecules.     

Fatty Acid Composition and Contents of Seven Commercial Fish Species of Genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Coregonus</Emphasis> from Russian Subarctic Water Bodies

In several Russian northern lakes and rivers, Arctic cisco Coregonus autumnalis, least cisco C. sardinella, peled C. peled, tugun C. tugun, broad whitefish C. nasus, whitefish C. lavaretus and vendace C. albula were sampled in periods of officially permitted commercial fishery. Special attention was paid to contents (mg g^?1 of wet weight) of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in muscle tissues (filets), which are essential for human nutrition. The highest values of EPA + DHA content in semi‐anadromous fish and freshwater fish were recorded for C. autumnalis from the Yenisei River, 17.60 mg g^?1 wet weight, and for C. lavaretus from the Sobachye Lake, 16.61 mg g^?1 wet weight, respectively. Intra‐genus variations of EPA + DHA contents of Coregonus species were from 1.87 to 17.60 mg g^?1 wet weight. Since the congeneric species were genetically close to each other, the variations in EPA and DHA contents were thought to be caused primarily by ecological factors: migrational capability, type of feeding and trophic status of aquatic ecosystems. In general, the majority of studied species appeared to be of a high nutritive value for humans, although unfavorable environmental conditions could considerably diminish this value.     

Molecular Finger Printing of Nutra-Coconut Oil with Improved Health Protective Phytoceuticals and its Efficacy as Frying Medium

Coconut oil is rich in medium chain triglycerides but lacks polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) and bio‐active phytoceuticals. In the present work nutra‐coconut oil was prepared by blending coconut oil and flaxseed oil (70:30) and adding 3000 ppm of flaxseed cake concentrate using ethanol, methanol and 20 % aqueous ethanol. The concentrate prepared from flaxseed was from ethanol as it gave maximum yield. The different bio‐active molecules in flaxseed concentrate observed are polyphenols (39.04 %), tocopherols (4.37 %), ferulic acid (0.17 mg g^?1), p‐coumaric acid (2.24 mg g^?1), chlorogenic acid (16.11 mg g^?1), gallic acid (8.58 mg g^?1), sinapic acid (0.64 mg g^?1) and secoisolariresinol (30.13 mg g^?1). The nutra‐coconut oil was found to have polyphenols (2.86 %), tocopherols (442.96 ppm) and antiradical activity (94 %). The PUFA content was found to increase in nutra‐coconut oil significantly (p < 0.05) (2–22 %). The FT‐IR spectra of nutra‐coconut oil revealed that the peak at 3009 and 1651 cm^?1 was associated with the presence of unsaturated fatty acids. There was no significant (p > 0.05) difference observed in sensory attributes of snack food fried using coconut oil and nutra‐coconut oil indicating that the later could be used as a frying medium and useful for food processing industries.     

Lipid Composition and Antioxidant Capacity Evaluation in Tilapia Fillets Supplemented with a Blend of Oils and Vitamin E

Since the nutritional value of farm‐raised fish fillets is directly related to the diet provided, we supplemented the diet of Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) with a blend of chia (Salvia hispanica L.) oil, tung (Aleurites fordii) oil, and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) to evaluate the effects on the fatty acid composition. Vitamin E was also added to the diet to improve the antioxidant capacity of tilapia fillets. We observed an increase in α‐linolenic acid content (from 6.56 to 19.03 mg g^?1 of total lipids), as well as the incorporation of CLA and conjugated linolenic acid (CLnA) isomers in the fillets. The addition of vitamin E resulted in the antioxidant capacity improvement of the fillets and higher values were found after 15 feeding days (39.25 µmol TE g^?1 in the Ferric Reducing Ability Power assay). Supplementation proved to be an excellent tool to improve the nutritional value of fish fillets.     

Volatile fatty acid production during anaerobic mesophilic digestion of solid potato waste

The production of volatile fatty acids by anaerobic digestion of solid potato waste was investigated using a batch solid waste reactor with a working capacity of 2 dm^?3 at 37°C. Solid potato waste was packed into the digester and the organic content of the waste was released by microbial activity by circulating water over the bed, using batch loads of 500 g or 1000 g potato waste. The sequence of appearance of the volatile fatty acids was (acetic, propionic); (n‐butyric); (n‐valeric, iso‐valeric, caproic); (iso‐butyric). After 300 h digestion of potato waste on a small scale, the fermentation products were chiefly (mg g^?1 total VFAs): acetic acid (420), butyric acid (310), propionic acid (140) and caproic acid (90), with insignificant amounts of iso‐butyric acid, n‐valeric and iso‐valeric acids. When the load of potato solids was increased, the volatile fatty acid content was similar, but butyric acid constituted 110 mg g^?1 and lactic acid 400 mg g^?1 of the total volatile fatty acids. The maximum soluble chemical oxygen demand (COD) achieved under the experimental conditions used was 27 and 37 g COD dm^?3 at low and high loadings of potato solids, respectively. The total volatile fatty acids reached 19 g dm^?3 of leachate at both loads of potato solid waste. Gas production was negligible, indicating that methanogenic activity was effectively inhibited. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Lipophilic components in black currant seed and pomace extracts

The nature of the fatty acids and other lipophilic components in extracts from black currant seed and pomace (containing seed) were investigated, with a view to highlighting any potential uses. The same non‐hydroxylated fatty acids were the major components in both types of extract, but total levels were less in pomace (75 582 mg 100 g^?1 oil) than in seed alone (90 972 mg 100 g^?1 oil) and there were less unsaturated fatty acids, including GLA (8653 and 12 625 mg 100 g^?1 oil, respectively), but long chain n‐20:0 – n‐30:0 fatty acids (4080 and 437 mg 100 g^?1 oil, respectively) were greatly increased in pomace. Phytosterols (mainly β‐sitosterol), saturated n‐20:0 – n‐30:0 policosanols, ω‐hydroxy fatty acids (mainly 16‐hydroxy 16:0) and 2‐hydroxy fatty acids (mainly 2‐hydroxy 24:0) were present at much greater levels in pomace (2496, 2097, 958 and 46 mg 100 g^?1 oil, respectively) than in seed (553, 108, 161, and 1 mg 100 g^?1 oil, respectively). The pomace extract is a useful source of fatty acids, phytosterols and policosanols with potential functional properties. Practical applications: The study investigated the lipophilic components in isohexane extracts from black currant seed and pomace (containing seed). Only pomace extracts had substantial amounts of phytosterols and policosanols that have potential as cholesterol‐lowering agents, whereas fatty acids such as GLA, that has anti‐inflammatory properties, are mainly in the seed.     

Physicochemical Characterization,Fatty Acid And Tocopherol Content of Moringa ovalifolia (African Moringa) Oil From Namibia

Moringa ovalifolia tree is indigenous to Namibia and is a multipurpose tree whose leaves, pods, fruits, and flowers are edible. The tree is well adapted to the harsh climatic conditions of the region and easily cultivated. In this paper, we investigate the physicochemical characteristics of the oil extracted from M. ovalifolia seeds collected from Remhoogte Farm, Khomas region, Namibia. The oil yield was 34.86 ± 2.47%. The oil contained a high level of monounsaturated fatty acids, with oleic acid (18:1) being the dominant one. The oil had high levels of tocopherol, with a total of 44.56 mg 100 g^?1 of oil, comprising α‐tocopherol (33.94 mg 100 g^?1), β‐tocopherol (6.64 mg 100 g^?1), and δ‐tocopherol (3.98 mg 100 g^?1). High levels of stigmasterol (142.41 mg 100 g^?1) and β‐sitosterol (330.70 mg 100 g^?1) were also detected. The seed oil exhibited good‐quality characteristics, making it a useful new seed oil to be considered for food and nonfood applications.     

Determination of essential fatty acids in captured and farmed tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) from the Brazilian Amazonian area

This research aimed to quantify the methyl esters of linoleic (LA), γ-linolenic (LNA), arachidonic (AA), eicosapentaenoic (EPA), and docosahexaenoic (DHA) acids in the muscular tissue and orbital cavity of farmed tambaqui (Colossoma macropomum) and in those caught in the Brazilian Amazonian Area during two periods. For the farmed fish, the amounts of LA, LNA, AA, EPA, and DHA found in the muscle were 208.0, 12.4, 57.9, 5.0, and 25.1 mg/g, respectively. The amounts of these FA in the orbital cavity were 103.4, 6.6, 20.0, 4.4, and 8.1 mg/g for LA, LNA, AA, EPA, and DHA, respectively. For the fish caught during the flood period, the LA, LNA, AA, EPA, and DHA levels were 297.3, 50.7, 32.3, 3.8, and 14.1 mg/g in the muscle and in the orbital cavity were 259.7, 40.3, 10.8, 5.5, and 9.3 mg/g, respectively. For the fish captured in the dry season the levels of LA, LNA, AA, EPA and DHA in the muscle were 262.0, 48.0, 157.6, 9.3, and 40.2 mg/g and in the orbital cavity were 102.5, 15.7, 24.6, 7.0, and 8.9 mg/g. According to their contents of AA, EPA, and DHA, tambaqui captured in the dry season can be considered as a rich source of EFA. The adipose tissue of the orbital cavity did not show sufficiently high EPA and DHA contents to classify it as a better source of FA than the muscle.     

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Seeds of Various Halophytic Grasses

Increasing population has resulted in overexploitation of conventional seeds. The limited supply of water and salinization of agricultural lands are threats to crop production. This creates food insecurity and results in ever‐increasing prices of crops and edible oils. Halophytes that produce high‐quality seeds can serve as sources of oil and edible products. We analyzed the chemical composition and antioxidant activity of seeds from 5 halophytic grasses, i.e., Aeluropus lagopoides, Eragrostis ciliaris, Eragrostis pilosa, Panicum antidotale, and Sporobolus ioclados. These seeds contained crude protein (10–29%), carbohydrates (32–55%), crude fiber (4–21%), minerals (3.8–9.2%), and oil (4–11%), indicating their nutritional potential. Oils of these seeds had suitable fatty‐acid composition with 62–82% unsaturation and only 17–24% saturation. Out of this, 91–94% of the total oil constituted by linoleic, oleic, and palmitic acids. High contents of total phenols (2.8–4.2 mg gallic acid equivalent [GAE] g^?1), flavonoids (0.5–1.3 mg Quercetin equivalent [QE] g^?1), and tannins (0.3–1.3 mg catechin equivalent [CE] g^?1) supported their high antioxidant activity (1,1‐Diphenyl‐2‐picryl‐hydrazyl (DPPH) activity in terms of half maximal inhibitory concentration‐IC₅₀ 1.1–5.86 mg mL^?1; 2,2′‐azino‐bis3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulphonic acid (ABTS) 18.8–72.8 mmol Trolox g^?1; ferric‐reducing antioxidant power 2.0–4.4 mmol Fe⁺² g^?1). The reverse phase‐high‐pressure liquid chromatography analysis identified the presence of bioactive phenolic antioxidants (mainly gallic acid, chlorogenic acid, coumaric acid, ferulic acid, kaempferol, and quercetin). Due to these characteristic composition and salt tolerability, these plants can serve as potential sources of industrial raw materials for food, edible oil, phytochemicals, and oliochemicals.     

Effect of freezing on quality of sea bass and gilthead sea bream

Freezing is an efficient method of fish preservation. The aim of the present work was to examine the impact of freezing in fatty acid composition and in the in vitro inhibitory activity of sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) fillet lipids against platelet activating factor (PAF). The Bligh and Dyer extraction method and the counter‐current distribution method were used to obtain total, polar and neutral lipids. The fatty acid analysis conducted using the internal standard method and the biological assay on washed rabbit platelets took place calculating the in vitro inhibitory activity of fish lipids against 2.5 × 10^?11 M of PAF. No statistical changes (p<0.05) occurred in fatty acid content of fresh and thawed gilthead sea bream, while fatty acid amount in thawed sea bass was significantly higher (p<0.05) compared to fresh fish. Total lipids of both thawed fish species exhibited stronger anti‐thrombotic activity compared to fresh fish. Freezing preserved fish quality and reinforced the anti‐thrombotic properties of fish oils, since even after 6 months of freezing, fish oils preserve their nutritional value in terms of protecting against cardiovascular diseases. Practical applications: Fish fillets contain high amount of unsaturated lipids that may easily undergo lipid oxidation. Freezing and frozen storage prevent such oxidative changes so fish quality is retained. Fatty acids and PAF‐antagonists in fish are of major importance since they contribute to the nutritional value of fish. The practical application of this work lies on the evaluation of the nutritional value of fish in terms of cardio protection by examining the impact of freezing on the levels of fatty acids and PAF‐antagonists in aquacultured fish fillets.     

Comprehensive Identification of Principal Lipid Classes and Tocochromanols in Silkworm (Antheraea pernyi and Bombyx mori) Pupae Oils

A comprehensive identification of lipid compositions and tocochromanols in Antheraea pernyi (A. pernyi) and Bombyx mori (B. mori) pupae oil is reported in the present study. Fatty acid profiling shows that both oils contain high levels (79.67% vs 71.11%) of unsaturated fatty acids, especially linoleic acid and linolenic acid. Moreover, linolenic acid is preferentially enriched at the sn‐2 positions of triacylglycerols (TAGs). Liquid chromatograph‐mass spectrometry (LC‐MS) analysis demonstrates that POO (TAG with one palmitoyl and two oleoyls) is the primary TAG form with percentages of 20.18% in A. pernyi and 15.00% in B. mori. The dominating phospholipid species are phosphatidylcholine (PC, 30.40% vs 54.61%) and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE, 34.82% vs 20.39%). Four sterol constituents with total contents of 382.56 ± 3.12 and 371.65 ± 2.98 µg g^?1 are identified and analyzed quantitatively. Additionally, the levels of tocochromanols (20.15 ± 0.89 vs 17.15 ± 0.71 mg g^?1) are quantified in both silkworm pupae oils. Overall, silkworm oil acts as an enriched source of functional lipids and tocochromanols. Practical Applications: A systematic investigation on the principal lipid classes and tocochromanols of Antheraea pernyi pupae and Bombyx mori pupae oil is reported in this study. The informative data provide supporting evidence for comprehensive utilization of silkworm oil for production of nutritional and healthy products.     

Preferential oxidation of linolenic acid compared to linoleic acid in the liver of catfish (Heteropneustes fossilis andClarias batrachus)

The fate of [1-¹⁴C] linoleic acid and [1-¹⁴C] linolenic acid in the liver slices and also in the liver tissues of live carnivorous catfish,Heteropneustes fossilis andClarias batrachus, was studied. Incorporation of the fatty acids into different lipid classes in the live fish differed greatly from the tissue slices, indicating certain physiological control operative in vivo. The extent of desaturation and chain elongation of linoleic and linolenic acids into long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids was low. Linolenic acid was oxidized (thus labeling the saturated fatty acid with liberated¹⁴C-acetyl-CoA) in preference to linoleic acid, and this oxidation also seemed to be under physiological control since both of the fatty acids were poorly oxidized in the tissue slices and in the killed fish. These fish can therefore recognize the difference in the acyl chain structures of linoleate and linolenate. The higher oxidation of liolenic acid and poor capacity for its conversion to longer chain, highly unsaturated derivatives indicates a higher demand for the dietary supply of these essential fatty acids in these two species.     

Nutritional Value of Seven Freshwater Fish Species From the Brazilian Pantanal

This study determined the proximate composition and fatty acid profile of the lipid fraction in muscle tissue (fillet) of seven fish species from the Miranda River, Brazil. Total lipid content had the largest coefficient of variation among species (73%), while protein content had the smallest (4.5%), allowing Pimelodus argenteus (mandi-prateado) to be categorized as lean fish; Pimelodus maculatus (mandi-amarelo), Hemisorubim platyrhynchos (jurupoca), and Pinirampus pirinampu (barbado) as species with medium fat content, and Paulicea luetkeni (jaú) and Surubim lima (jurupensém) as fatty fish. In all the species investigated, palmitic acid (23.76–25.99%) was the predominant saturated fatty acid. Oleic acid (16.09–32.90%) was the most abundant monounsaturated fatty acid. Total omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (5.99–15.56%) were the predominant polyunsaturated fatty acids, except in Ageneiosus brevifilis (palmito), in which total omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids predominated (10.30%). All the species had favorable indices of nutritional quality for total lipids, with respect to human consumption.     

Fatty acid composition in wild and cultivated pacu and pintado fish

The fatty acid compositions of muscle tissue taken from wild strains of pintado (Pseudoplatystoma corruscans) and pacu (Piaractus mesopotamicus) fish, which were taken from the Brazilian Pantanal, were compared to the fatty acid compositions of tissue taken from two corresponding cultivated strains, which were fed commercial diets. The cultivated species possessed lipid contents of 12.2% (pacu) and 8.9% (pintado) while the wild species contained 7.9% (pacu) and 2.5% (pintado) lipids. Despite the high lipid contents of the cultivated pintado and pacu, the n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations in muscle tissue were higher in wild pintado (224.9 mg/g flesh) and wild pacu (485.1 mg/g flesh) than in their respective cultivated strains (129.8 and 106.1 mg/g flesh, respectively). The n‐6/n‐3 ratios of pacu were 1.2 (wild) and 9.8 (cultivated), and those of pintado were 1.0 (wild) and 7.3 (cultivated). The fatty acid composition of pacu and pintado are strongly influenced by habitat and diet.     

Incorporation of Omega-3 Fatty Acids in Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) Fed Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) Bran

This study evaluated the effect of the inclusion of chia bran in the diet of Nile tilapia on the composition of n‐3 fatty acids (FA). Omega‐3 fatty acids provide health benefits such as reducing the risks of coronary heart disease, hypertension and inflammation, and the precursor alpha‐linolenic acid is considered strictly essential because it cannot be synthesized by humans, therefore must be ingested. Tilapias grown in tanks for a period of 45 days were treated with diets supplemented with either soybean oil (TI) or chia bran (TII). Proximal composition analysis of the feeds showed no significant difference. Feed FA quantification showed that the chia diet (TII) had a higher alpha‐linolenic acid (LNA) content. A significant increase was observed in the concentrations of LNA (8.38–81.31 mg 100 g^?1 fillets), eicosapentaenoic acid (1.12–1.56 mg 100 g^?1 fillets) and docosahexaenoic acid (19.55–26.55 mg 100 g^?1 fillets) in tilapia fillets between 0 and 45 days for TII. Total lipids at 45 days under TII were fractionated into neutral lipids (67.66 %) and polar lipids (18.90 %). Thus, dietary supplementation with chia bran contributed to raising the nutritional quality of Nile tilapia fillets.     

Effect of Dietary Replacement of Soybean Oil with Different Sources of Gamma‐Linolenic Acid on Fatty Acid Composition of Nile Tilapia

Gamma‐linolenic acid (GLA) plays an important role in the prevention and/or treatment of certain diseases. In this work, we investigate the incorporation of GLA from supplemented feed diets with borage oil (BO) and evening primrose oil (EPO) as substitutes for soybean oil (SO) into the composition of tilapia fillet lipids. High contents of PUFA and n‐6 fatty acids were quantified in fish fillet after 30 days of treatment with SO, BO, and EPO. Feed diets containing BO and EPO were efficient in the incorporation of GLA into fish. Compared to the initial day of the experiment, the increase of GLA was significant (from 6.43 to 13.99 and 15.12 mg g^?1, in lipids of fish treated for 30 days with BO and EPO, respectively). The increase of GLA was also observed in fish which were fed with SO diet (6.43–11.43 mg g^?1). Principal component analysis (PCA) allowed the separation of the treatments and discriminated BO and EPO in a group of fish that received the GLA supplemented diet. In addition to GLA, n‐3 fatty acids were important in the characterization of SO diet and affected the separation of BO and EPO from SO in the PCA score plot.     

Application of Saponin for Cholesterol Removal from Pacific White Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) Lipid

The removal of cholesterol from lipid obtained from Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) cephalothorax using saponin in conjunction with celite under various conditions is investigated. Various lipid:saponin ratios (1:2, 1:4, and 1:6, W/W) with different lipid:solvent ratios (1:20, 1:40, and 1:80, W/V) are employed with a treatment time of 4 h. The highest cholesterol removal (88.77 ± 0.18%) is obtained with a lipid:saponin ratio of 1:6 and 20 volumes of 50% ethanol. As the treatment time is increased from 1 to 4 h, higher cholesterol removal is achieved. Lipid peroxides and conjugated dienes are higher in the lipid after cholesterol removal compared to untreated lipid, while thiobarbituric acid reactive substances, the ρ‐anisidine value and free fatty acids are reduced. However, the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content in the saponin‐treated lipid (18.06 ± 0.37 g/100 g^?1) is higher than that of untreated lipid (15.80 ± 0.17 g/100 g^?1). FTIR spectra confirmed the formation of hydroperoxides, with lower aldehyde, phospholipid and free fatty acid contents in the cholesterol‐removed lipid. The process developed employing saponin is able to produce crude shrimp lipid with a pronounced decrease in cholesterol, but augmented PUFAs, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). Practical Applications: Shrimp lipid is a vital byproduct capable of extraction from cephalothorax. Due to the presence of astaxanthin, EPA and DHA, shrimp lipid is considered to be a highly useful nutraceutical product. However, the cholesterol content of shrimp lipid is a major constraint on its human consumption. The negative impact of cholesterol content can be overcome by lowering the cholesterol content. Saponin treatment of shrimp lipid is able to reduce the cholesterol level and increase the PUFA, thus solving the high cholesterol problem and also gaining augmented health benefits.     

Statistical optimization of process parameters for the production of vanillic acid by solid‐state fermentation of groundnut shell waste using response surface methodology

BACKGROUND: Vanillic acid is a flavoring agent and also serves as precursor for vanillin production. Culture medium and fermentation condition for the single step production of vanillic acid from Phanerochaete chrysosporium using lignocellulosic waste as a substrate under solid state fermentation (SSF) were optimized using response surface methodology. RESULTS: The process parameters were chosen by borrowing methodology, and L‐asparagine, pH and moisture content of the solid medium during SSF were identified as the most significant variables. The optimum value of selected variable and their mutual interactions were determined by response surface methodology. The result demonstrated that a yield of 73.58 mg vanillic acid g^?1 substate was predicted under optimum conditions (L‐asparagine 5.98 mmol L^?1 (2.37 mg g^?1 groundnut shell), pH of solid medium 4.51 and moisture content 74.83%). The predicted response was experimentally validated and resulted in a maximum vanillic acid yield of 73.69 mg g^?1 after 8 days of SSF. CONCLUSION: The optimization of fermentation variables resulted in a maximum 10‐fold increase in vanillic acid yield compared with that observed under sub‐optimal conditions (from 7.2 mg g^?1 to 73.69 mg g^?1). Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

The effects of season on fat and fatty acids contents of shrimp and prawn species

The effects of seasons on the lipid content and fatty acid compositions of five different shrimp and prawn species (green tiger prawn – Penaeus semisulcatus, kuruma prawn – Marsupenaeus japonicus, caramote prawn – Melicertus kerathurus, deepwater pink shrimp – Parapenaeus longirostris, speckled shrimp – Metapenaeus monoceros) were evaluated. Results showed that lipid content ranged from 0.89 to 1.55% in muscle, showing that all species were considered as lean. There were significant differences (p<0.05) in the levels of saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) in terms of season and species. They were rich in n‐3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The highest proportions of EPA were obtained from kuruma prawn (180.9 mg/100 g) in spring and deepwater pink shrimp (173.2 mg/100 g) and caramote prawn (146.3 mg/100 g) in summer. Kuruma prawn had the highest DHA in spring (140.8 mg/100 g) followed by deepwater pink shrimp (132.2 mg/100 g) and caramote prawn (129.6 mg/100 g) in summer. The results also showed that the seasons affected lipid content and the fatty acid composition of shrimp and prawn species. Practical Application: The beneficial effect of seafood consumption on human health has been related to the high content of n‐3 fatty acids, especially EPA (20:5n‐3) and DHA (22:6n‐3). The ratios of n‐6/n‐3, PUFA/SFA and EPA + DHA are considered as useful criteria for comparing relative nutritional and oxidation values of marine oils. In the current study, the influence of seasonality on the lipid content and the fatty acid compositions of shrimp and prawn were investigated in order to find the best source of n‐3 fatty acids during the year.