Factors affecting changes in landscape diversity in rural areas of the Fagus crenata forest region of central Japan

We compared landscape diversity in a primary forest site and a coppice forest site in rural area of the Fagus crenata forest region of central Japan. We focused on the factors affecting landscape diversity, with special reference to land ownership, and the relationship between changes in landscape diversity and the spatial distribution of landscape elements. We were able to identify two patterns that led to increased landscape diversity in the study sites. In the first, which was most apparent in the primary forest site, increased diversity resulted primarily from an increase in the number of landscape elements. In the other, which was seen in the coppice forest site, increased diversity resulted from a decrease in the difference between the numbers of grid squares dominated by each landscape element while the number of landscape elements remained unchanged. Land ownership also had different implications for the increase of landscape diversity. The changes in the Contagion Index, which decreased in private land and increased in the national forest, showed that private land contains many small patches while the landscape of the national forest consists of a few large, contiguous patches. Thus, an evaluation of changes in landscape structure requires measuring a variety of indexes in addition to the diversity.     

Changes in the landscape structure of the Nagara River Basin, central Japan

A watershed is a structural and functional unit of a landscape consisting of various environments and sustaining a certain biodiversity. Conservation of watershed environments is important at both the regional and the national level. As a basis for conservation management, sufficient information about landscape structure should be provided for the whole terrestrial area of a watershed. In the present study, we reconstructed the former landscape structure and elucidated the changes in land use patterns during a period of about 80 years after 1900 (late Meiji era) in the Nagara River Basin, central Japan. We used three sets of maps for the analyses: old and modern topographical maps made in 1909, 1971 and 1992 by the Geographical Agency. Each map (ca. 18 km×22 km) was divided into 400 (20×20) grid cells, according to latitude and longitude. The dimension of each grid cell was about 1 km² (0.9 km×1.1 km). In each grid cell, all land-cover types were inventoried and the most dominant one was determined to be the dominant land-cover. The relative dominance (RD), frequency (FQ) and similarity index (SI) were calculated for analyses. The relative dominance of broad-leaved forest decreased, whereas those of conifer forest and residential areas increased throughout the whole study area during the 80-year period. However, regional differences in landscape change were found. In the upriver area, the relative dominance of broad-leaved forest decreased, while that of conifer forest increased. In the mid-river area, the relative dominance of conifer forest decreased, while that of broad-leaved forest increased. In the present study, we revealed the basic regional differences in landscape structure and their changes in the Nagara River Basin. Land use history with reference to socio-economics should be considered as an important factor affecting the present landscape structure.     

Post-Soviet forest fragmentation and loss in the Green Belt around Moscow, Russia (1991–2001): a remote sensing perspective

Recent changes in the post-Soviet Russia suggest rapid privatization of previously protected green space around many metropolitan areas. Nowhere is the trend more apparent than near the capital Moscow. Since 1992, formerly protected forests of the Green Belt have been heavily pursued for elite suburban housing development. With the help of two Landsat images (1991 and 2002) and some on-theground analysis, we investigate areas that have experienced the most mature forest loss. We also examine the spatial pattern of this change, as measured objectively by landscape metrics. Within 20 km from the beltline, about 14.6% of the forested land was converted to suburban residential and commercial uses in the 10-year period. The amount of mature forest loss ranged from 14 to 35% per district, but was partially compensated by some new tree plantings and reforestation for a combined tree cover loss of 14.6% for the entire area, including the city of Moscow. If the city proper is excluded, the loss in the suburban green belt was 12.4%. While this is a moderate decrease, it still represents a trend towards less tree cover and more suburban development in the immediate vicinity of a large city, which is likely to result in worsening air quality and negative impacts on wildlife and opportunities for public recreation in suburban forests in the near future.     

The role of the spatial dimension within the framework of sustainable landscapes and natural capital

A new paradigm of Natural Capital and Sustainable Landscapes has been suggested. It implies the integration of economic, environmental and social-cultural qualities in a physical setting while focusing on functions in terms of goods and services for people. Due to its anthropocentric perspective it pays less attention to landscape structure and spatial arrangement compared to the widely applied patch-matrix concept. The matrix of land use elements provides the key to understanding land use systems and land use changes and it can play an important role in understanding land use pattern and their dynamics. But one of the remaining constraints for a direct application of landscape ecological concepts in practice is the lack of agreed ways to combine environmental, socio-economic and societal/cultural views. This paper examines both paradigms, asking: does the spatial arrangement of land use types add specific qualities beyond statistical measures of their existence and quantity? For instance, can a landscape be sustainable, as long as 20% of the land use is extensive, 10% is protection area, etc., no matter where the respective patches are, which typical size and shape they have, how connected patches are and how often incompatible land use types are adjacent? This paper elucidates spatial concepts for sustainable landscapes with an emphasis on the role of GIS.     

The dynamics of tree cover change in a rural Australian landscape

This study investigated the change in tree cover in a 130 000 ha rural landscape near Bathurst, New South Wales, Australia between 1954 and 1989. Using aerial photographs, tree cover was assessed using five cover classifications (<2% cover, 2.1–25%, 25.1–50%, >50% or exotic pine plantation), with the resulting data analysed using a Geographic Information System. Overall, there was a loss of woodland/forest and an increase in the area of cleared land and Pinus radiata plantations over 35 years. Although some regeneration of woodland/forest cover occurred on marginal farmland, the general trend of loss and fragmentation has serious ramifications for nature conservation and agricultural production. The eastern and western portions of the study area exhibited quite different patterns in tree cover change, highlighting the need for examining landscapes at appropriate spatial and temporal scales.     

现代艺术的创作思想对现代景观设计的影响

现代艺术与现代景观设计虽然处于不同的领域,但却属于同一层面的行为模式,它们是彼此互动,同构发展的。本文结合大量实例深入剖析了现代艺术的创作思想对现代景观设计的影响,探讨了现代景观设计的发展方向。     

Changes in landscape structure of “yatsu” valleys: a typical Japanese urban fringe landscape

This study focuses on the ‘yatsu’ landscape of the southern Kanto Region, in central Japan. This agricultural landscape consists of narrow, branching valleys where rice is cultivated in irrigated paddies, and surrounding slopes and uplands devoted to a variety of landscape types, such as dry vegetable field, orchard, bamboo grove and coppice woodland. Two sites were selected, one with a long history of suburban development, and another just in the process of development. Changes in the landscape over a 30-year period, from 1960 to 1990, were identified and analyzed using aerial photographs and Geographical Information Systems (GIS) software. In the more intensively developed site, total forest area decreased while patch size of grassland, residences and bare ground increased together with the total number of patches. These changes in landscape element type were caused primarily by direct conversion of one type to another. In the less developed site, the total area and mean patch size of deciduous broad-leaved forest increased, and the total number of patches did not change. Changes at this site were caused mostly by the abandonment of traditional land management practices. The results of this study indicate that not only landscape element types, but also boundary types are influenced by urbanization. Of particular importance is the finding that the ecological function of boundaries is reduced by human intervention. This means that forest-floor herbaceous plants and woody plants with low dispersal capability will likely be adversely affected as residential development expands.     

Modeling the dynamics of landscape structure in Asia’s emerging desakota regions: a case study in Shenzhen

The rapid urbanization taking place in Asia since 1970 has exhibited a process different from that of the developed countries in the West. This process has contributed to the emergence of a new landscape in Asia — widely known as the desakota (a combination of two Indonesian words: “desa” for village, “kota” for town) regions described in the McGee–Ginsburg model. These desakota regions are characterized by an intense mix of agricultural and non-agricultural activities that often stretch along corridors between large city cores. Although, the McGee–Ginsburg model captures the socio-demographic dimensions of the rapid urbanization process, little is known about the dynamics of landscape structures in the emerging desakota regions in Asia. By linking remote sensing, landscape characterization indices, and cellular automata modeling with geographic information systems (GIS), this paper develops a GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach to study the landscape dynamics of the desakota regions in southeast China. We tested our method using data between 1992 and 1996 for the city of Longhua in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone — one of the fastest growing areas in southeast China. The results not only confirm the effectiveness of GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach in studying the ecological impacts of human activities, but also reveal the salient features of landscape dynamics in the desakota regions. Drawing from the results of this research, we conclude that the pace of urbanization and the size of desakota regions must be controlled in order to create a sustainable future in developing countries.     

Defying legal protection of Atlantic Forest in the transforming landscape around the Atibainha reservoir, south-eastern Brazil

Remnants of Atlantic Forest occupy approximately 50% of the land surrounding Atibainha reservoir in Brazil. They are legally protected due to their location on margins of rivers and reservoirs, steep slopes and hilltops or, according to federal rules, when in medium or advanced stage of regeneration. Identifying where and to what extent forest legislation is being ignored is necessary to inform future land-use policy. Using data derived from aerial photographs, combined with ground surveys of forest fragments, we determined forests that should be protected due to their stage of regeneration. We then evaluated whether land use within the 188 catchments that surround the Atibainha reservoir is consistent with restrictions on deforestation determined by their location. Most forest fragments in the region are in medium stage of regeneration and therefore legally protected. The extent of illegal deforestation among catchments differed significantly based on the location criteria. Forest cover was higher where combinations of these criteria apply, such as steep slopes alongside rivers or reservoir. While this might reflect increased propensity to respect forest regulations where multiple restrictions apply, it is also possible that such locations coincide with the low attractiveness for agriculture and other economic activities at such areas.     

Spatial and temporal dynamics of land use pattern in Turkey: A case study in İnegöl

Recognition and understanding of landscape dynamics as a historical legacy of disturbances are necessary for sustainable management of forest ecosystems. This study analyzed forest dynamics and spatial–temporal changes in land use/land cover pattern in a sub-temperate like alluvial forest land with 1778 km² area along the Eagan Sea coast of Turkey (İnegöl). This area is studied by comparing Landsat images from 1987 to 2001 and evaluated with spatial analyses of forest cover type maps from 1972, 1983, 1993 to 2004 using GIS. The study investigated temporal changes of spatial structure of forest conditions over the period using Fragstats™.The results showed that the forested areas increased both in between 1972 and 1993 years (3.3%) and between 1987 and 2001 years (6.7%). In terms of spatial configuration, İnegöl forests are generally fragmented in the latter periods due to intensive forest utilization, illegal use, expansion of settlements and infrastructural development in the lowlands. Land use pattern significantly changed over time depending on a few factors such as unregulated management actions, social pressure and demographic movements. In conclusion, land use changes have developed in favor of forestry over time between 1972–1993 and 1987–2001. The study revealed that demographic movements have a minor effect on landscape dynamics. Both spatial and temporal changes and the factors affecting these changes should be determined for developing sustainable management of forest resources.     

The interactive landscape plan: Use and benefits of new technologies in landscape planning and discussion of the interactive landscape plan in Koenigslutter am Elm,Germany

The ways people perceive greenway trails in urban environments are not well studied. Trail layout and aspects of maintenance and design of trails in urban areas would benefit from better knowledge of how potential users perceive these places and what might encourage or discourage their use. The purpose of this study was to examine the relative influence of aesthetic response dimensions on the likeability of greenway trail scenes in an urban environment. A web-based ‘virtual tour’ was used to elicit responses to scenes of urban greenway environments in downtown Houston and Austin, Texas, USA. The 211 subjects who participated in the study were selected from an undergraduate student population. Participants viewed the scenes and responded to the survey in a controlled computer laboratory. Perceptions of the greenways supported the aesthetic dimensions that Nasar has suggested for broader urban environments. Our analysis resulted in the identification of five dimensions of aesthetic response to the greenway scenes that were interpreted as: maintenance, distinctiveness, naturalness, pleasantness and arousal. These represented both cognitive and affective responses to the environment and all five dimensions were significant positive predictors of the likeability of greenway scenes. The dimension of pleasantness had the greatest influence on likeability and maintenance had the least. The implications of the findings for urban design related to greenway trails and future research are discussed.     

The interactive landscape plan: Use and benefits of new technologies in landscape planning and discussion of the interactive landscape plan in Koenigslutter am Elm, Germany

Information technologies (IT) provide new approaches for better access to environmental information and for improving the implementation of environmental goals in landscape planning. Many potentially suitable tools already exist. However, most have been developed in a different planning context, such as town planning or environmental impact assessment, and are only partly suitable for the comprehensive task of landscape planning. A number of important questions concerning the application of these tools in landscape planning remain unanswered: which types of tools are needed to solve the problems in landscape planning?; must these tools be adapted to the special conditions of landscape planning?; how should they be co-ordinated and ultimately integrated into a landscape planning support system? An analysis of the implementation problems in German landscape planning and the potentials of IT suggests new approaches and answers to these questions. This paper explores the effective use of IT in landscape planning and describes a model landscape planning support system that was developed and tested during the research project 'Interactive Landscape Plan' in Koenigslutter am Elm, Germany. The pilot project incorporated important components of an IT-supported landscape planning system: a geographical information system (GIS), tools for the support of communication in public participation, visualization tools and Decision Support Systems (DSSs). The project offers 'open-source' solutions, including a newly developed on-line participation tool, and an evaluation of selected visualization tools.     

A GIS-based multi-criteria decision making approach to forest conservation planning at a landscape scale: a case study in the Kinabalu Area, Sabah, Malaysia

This paper presents a geographic information system (GIS)-based multi-criteria decision making approach for forest conservation planning at a landscape scale. This approach enables decision makers to evaluate the relative priorities of conserving forest areas based on a set of preferences, criteria and indicators for the area. Compromise programming techniques are used to integrate the forest conservation priority maps of decision groups where a separation distance is calculated. A clustering analysis was applied to identify potential conservation areas as the basis of delineating potential new protected areas. The study was conducted in the Kinabalu area, Sabah, Malaysia where two polygons neighboring the Kinabalu Park were delineated. A group of 11 polygons totaling 2050 ha has also been detected in the western part of Kinabalu Park. The study recommends the inclusion of a forest polygon (359 ha) neighboring Kinabalu Park and another (4361 ha) to the west of the park as new protected areas. A green corridor linking the potential new protected areas and Kinabalu Park should also be constructed to facilitate animal movement and interaction. This study reveals that riparian vegetation is an important aspect to forest conservation and the legislation to protect riparian zones should be strengthened.     

Locating archaeological sites in the landscape: a hierarchical approach based on landscape indicators

Heritage conservation and management of landscapes is evident in many recent European policies and national reports on the state of the environment. To assist in the management of heritage resources, we present a landscape approach to the identification of localities with a high probability of possessing cultural heritage interests. The low proportion of sites registered in Norway (an estimated 20%) combined with current rates of damage gives the location of archaeological sites and their vulnerability to land use change high priority. To optimise use of the results for landscape planning, the study describes analysis at two hierarchical scales: (1) the regional level—where the aim was to locate combinations of environmental resources suitable for human use—for application in strategic planning; and (2) the landscape level—where identifying and delimiting cultural environments for local planning was the aim. This paper focuses on one type of archaeological site, Bronze and Iron Age grave mounds. The project used geographic information systems (GIS) for the analysis and mapping of landscape characteristics that indicate zones with a high probability of possessing cultural heritage interest. These zones covered ca. 12% of the forested areas of the region yet captured 94% of the registered grave mounds. New fieldwork confirmed the presence of new sites in the zones identified. Results have increased our understanding of archaeological site location in Norway and the close links between landscape ecology and archaeology.     

The role of agroforestry networks in landscape socioeconomic processes: the potential and limits of the contingent valuation method

Agroforestry networks can be a means to achieve landscape amelioration. Some authorities of the Lagoon of Venice drainage basin (Italy) are planning, amongst other actions to control pollution in the Lagoon, to reintroduce agroforestry by means of a GIS-supported design procedure. The goals of this paper were to assess (i) the contingent valuation (CV) (willingness to pay and willingness to accept) of agroforestry networks and its relationship with socioeconomic and agroforestry role variables, (ii) the coherence between agro-economic policies and farmers expectations, (iii) the relationship between the value of agroforestry as a “shared good” and water quality (non-point source pollution). Respondents associate a positive value/preference to the agroforestry network implementation, although this value is strongly affected firstly by their identity with the landscape and secondly by their income. The motivations of farmers’ evaluation are precise and the agroforestry network is considered not only as an “ethical object” but also as a concrete element of their own cultural and economic world. In this case the contingent value (in particular, in terms of acceptance) increases with the farmer’s economic capacity, and the farmer’s valuation is not linked only to the “good” but also to the “service” offered for implementing it. The expectations of farmers regarding an agroforestry plantation were lower than European Union incentives at the time of survey, and a lack of results in this field is probably linked to poor information and to bureaucratic difficulties. Even if there is general knowledge on water quality, there is little awareness on the non-point source pollution control effect of agroforestry buffer plantations, either in the common people or in those who are environmentally trained (e.g. planning university students). In every case the agroforestry “shared good” evaluation is high enough to permit efficient and supported intervention policies. These results confirm that landscape choices strongly involve issues of identity, perceived rights and evaluation capacity that cannot be simply resolved in terms of preference cost benefit analyses, but a clever use of the CV allows an identification of these same limitations and a partial estimation of them.     

The Riverside and Berwyn experience: Contrasts in landscape structure, perceptions of the urban landscape, and their effects on people

Humans not only structure the landscape through their activities, but their perceptions of nature are affected by the spatial and temporal arrangements (structure) in the landscape. Our understanding of these interactions, however, is limited. We explored the relationship between landscape structure and peoples’ perceptions of nature in the Chicago, IL, USA, suburbs of Riverside and Berwyn because they offer contrasting paradigms of an urban landscape. Designed in the 1800s by Frederick Law Olmsted, Riverside has several unique design elements (curvilinear streets, ample setbacks, parkways of variable width with mowed grass and naturalistic groupings of trees) that define the structure and composition of this landscape. The urban forest was the keystone of Olmsted's desire to create a harmonious community characterized by “refined sylvan beauty”. In contrast, the adjacent community of Berwyn has right-angled streets with small lots and narrow setbacks for houses. Differences in landscape structure between the two communities produced differences in the diversity, size, and composition of woody vegetation. As measured by patch-size distribution, Riverside had greater diversity in landscape structure than Berwyn, and in turn, Riverside had greater diversity in the composition and size of the woody vegetation compared to Berwyn. Riverside tended toward a “natural” appearance with vegetation, while yards in Berwyn tended to be trimmed and edged. Significant differences between the mean ratings of Riverside and Berwyn respondents were found for six of seven community attribute categories. Riverside participants reported receiving greater benefit from the visual and nature-related features of the urban forest than did Berwyn respondents. Berwyn residents ranked social atmosphere for the community and locomotion (wayfinding) highest among the seven community attribute categories. Despite differences between the two communities, residents valued the green residential environment provided by vegetation. However, the more diverse urban landscape as measured by built structures, woody vegetation, and lot size and shape proved to be more satisfying to the residents of these two communities. The design concepts developed and implemented by Olmsted more than century ago in Riverside are still relevant to city planners striving to develop living environments that are satisfying to urban and suburban residents.     

Using GIS and landscape metrics in the hedonic price modeling of the amenity value of urban green space: A case study in Jinan City, China

Urban green spaces have important amenity values that include provision of leisure opportunities and aesthetic enjoyment. However, most of these values lack a market price. Consequently, they are usually ignored or underestimated by urban planning policy-makers, with the result that remnant urban green spaces are being gradually encroached upon by urban sprawl. As a result, quantitative information regarding the implicit, non-market price benefits from urban green space is urgently required. Properties bought and sold on the market are compound commodities that embody amenity values and people are willing to pay to live in the proximity of local amenity environment. Thus hedonic models, which use such properties as proxies, can often be employed to quantify environmental amenities. In China, residential housing reform (in place since 1998) has terminated the traditional residential welfare system, and made it possible to quantify the monetary value of green space amenities based on hedonic pricing models. This study was conducted in Jinan City, and will help address the previous absence of the application of hedonic price models to the valuation of urban green space amenities in mainland China. GIS and landscape metrics were used in determining hedonic price model variables. As expected, the results proved that the hedonic pricing model performed well using this approach, and accordingly it was further improved. Results also confirmed the positive amenity impact of proximate urban green spaces on house prices, and highlighted the preferences of homeowners in Jinan City. Green space amenity variables that were statistically significant at the 5% level included the size–distance index of scenery forest, accessibility to park and plaza green space types, and the percentage of urban green space. In addition, land-use patch richness, the location sector and the education environment also proved to be highly significant variables. The results of the study should provide insights to policy-makers involved in urban planning.     

3S技术在日本筑波山梅林公园规划上的应用

以日本筑波山梅林公园规划为例,总结了利用3S技术进行园林规划的方法及其起到的作用,并阐明了如何将得到的经验教训结合我国国情,推动我国相关方面的发展进程.     

景观生态林的理论与实践——以深圳梧桐山泰山涧南亚热带景观生态实验林为例

从景观效果、树种选择、群落结构等方面分析了景观生态林的构建因素,阐释了“景观树种＋本底植被”的营造模式,提出景观生态林是具有理想的景观效果与良好生态效益的林份。以深圳梧桐山泰山涧南亚热带景观生态实验林为例,介绍其林地概况、植被规划、景观设计、树种、种苗要求、施工要求、预期效果、景观维护,对景观生态林的营造进行技术说明。     

Remote sensing and GIS in modeling visual landscape change: a case study of the northwestern arid coast of Egypt

Land use planners in many countries have recognized the importance of the aesthetic values of landscape. Their desire to incorporate these values into decision-making processes has created a need to identify valid ways to quantify the scenic characteristics of landscapes. This has led to an increasing interest in the use of spatial data and geographic information systems (GIS) methodology in assessing visual attributes of the landscape. The objective of the present study is to assess the visual changes in a rapidly developing coastal area of Egypt using remotely sensed data (satellite images and aerial photographs) and raster GIS modeling. The analysis assesses changes between a period characterized by a vernacular, relatively natural landscape (1950s) and the beginning of the exploitation of the region for resorts (1990s). Using land use/land cover classes extracted from the satellite images and aerial photographs, four visual attributes of landscape are identified: land use/land cover diversity, activity (degree of naturalness), proximity to the shoreline, and topographic variety. A composite index is also developed. Although these attributes and the composite index rely mostly on the type of land use/land cover information on the landscape under consideration, the adopted techniques succeed in detecting several changes in the attributes, spatially locating them and mapping the magnitude of their changes. This study demonstrates what can be done to analyze and assess what is usually considered an incommensurable resource, the visual attributes of landscapes. It also reveals the extent of the impact of unplanned or ill-planned activities on one of the fragile resources of arid landscapes.