The Nomenclature of Style: Brutalism,Minimalism, Art History and Visual Style in Architecture Journals

Naming styles or movements is a basic mechanism of architectural journals. The announcement of phenomena such as ‘critical regionalism’ or ‘deconstructivism’ involves referring architectural developments to a context in socio-politics or philosophy, and thus provides at least an initial resistance to their understanding as formal styles, which they quickly become. A different strategy is the naming of an architectural moment in the traditional form of an art historical style. Peter Reyner Banham and the Architecture Review's promotion of ‘Brutalism’ as an anti-aesthetic, look its conceptual form from explicit movements, with members and agenda, such as Futurism. Architectural Design's promotion of ‘Minimalism’ in the l990s exemplifies a different kind of style. In both cases, apparently divergent uses of ‘style’ are complicated by the process of naming, and by the tendency of the journal's graphic design to become the style—to become self-identifying.     

Emotional mapping and its participatory potential: Opinions about cycling conditions in Reykjavík,Iceland

Many cities have prioritised the provision of bicycle infrastructure, as part of a transition to more sustainable transport. Information from the users of bicycle facilities is crucial for successful bicycle planning. The article presents a case study of Reykjavík, Iceland, where a simple ‘emotional mapping’ platform was used to enable cyclists to express their emotional reactions to routes and places. A sample of 100 users identified some 541 features - lines and points - on a map of the city, associated them with either ‘good’ or ‘bad’ emotions and wrote textual comments to elaborate on the reasons for their judgement. The results indicate clearly the importance of the natural environment for cyclists, as well as the negative feeling engendered by cycling close to car traffic or in the street with the cars. These data support the emphases found in the present bicycling plan of Reykjavík city. In general, volunteered geographical information and crowdsourcing has much potential for increasing citizen participation in urban planning. A flexible software platform for participatory mapping, such as the one used in the study, can be a valuable addition to the planner‘s toolbox.     

REFLECTIONS OF THE VIRTUAL: The Virtual in Architecture and the Potential of Animate Form

This paper looks at the place of design in Heidegger's theorisadon of what he posits as the highest danger—the danger threatening both humanity's ability to dwell, and the Earth itself as the source of all potentiality. The paper builds upon a particular reading of one of Heidegger's central concepts, that of ‘projecting’ (entwurf). which, it is argued, could equally be understood as ‘designing.’ The paper demonstrates bow this particular understanding of designing, and thus the implications of the danger it bears, is threaded through Heidegger's work.     

Negotiating an Asiatown in Berlin: Ethnic diversity in urban planning

Cities are increasingly affected by migration which raises new questions for urban development and planning. In the paper at hand, this issue is addressed from two perspectives: First, we stress the high social, representative as well as economic potential of ethnic economies and the emerging neighborhoods, showing that they serve migrant communities as well as urban development. Second, we bring in perspectives from the ‘planning for diversity’ and ‘multicultural planning’ discourses into the German debate. This paper takes the planning conflict on the development of the Dong Xuan Center (DXC), Germany's largest Vietnamese-run trade center, into an Asiatown as empirical basis. It examines legal implications for the German context and therewith contributes to the ‘planning for diversity’ discourse from a non-multicultural setting.     

From a/topia to topia: Towards a gendered right to the city for migrant volunteers in London

The paper makes use of an un-orthodox Lefebvrian formulation of the ‘right to the city’ as it adds the gender dimension which was absent from Lefebvre's work. The lens of ‘gendered right to the city’ (Doderer, 2003; Fenster, 2005; Vacchelli, 2014) is used in order to understand the experiences of volunteers working in the women's community and voluntary sector in London. We look specifically at the role of migrant organisations both as places of co-option of migrant labour, as places that enable the integration of migrants and make their participation in the urban fabrics possible, and as places that are appropriated by migrant volunteers in London as a means of enacting active citizenship.London's governance, policy discourses and practices seek to impose a top-down idea of civic participation. In this vision, the role of migrant groups and organisations can only be valued in the context of an active civil society, able to replace the vacuum left by the progressive erosion of the welfare state, leading to a crisis of social reproduction. Lefebvre's theoretical framework of ‘space appropriation’ serves as a way to explore these questions and we propose a further spatial reading which is specific to a gendered right to the city, i.e. the shift from a/topia (not having a space or being denied access to public spaces broadly conceived) to topia. We speculate on what this newly found space looks like and what is its potential for the subversion of top-down policy discourses on civic participation in the neoliberal city.     

Gathering,Disposing and the Cultivation of Judgement in Sir Henry Wotton's: The Elements of Architecture

Employing a hermeneutic approach to Sir Henry Wotton's seventeenth century text on architecture, this paper discloses the discourse on judgement that lies at its heart. Wotton's conception of judgement is Aristotelian, and refers to Aristotle's Ethics; specifically his discourses on practical reasoning, legislation and political wisdom. Addressed to the aristocratic amateur architects of Jacobean England. The Elements of Architecture seeks to provide a ‘rule’ to guide the cultivation of good judgment in architecture. Nuances of the relationship between ‘rule’ and ‘example’ in Wotton's conception of judgement are examined, highlighting a consonance with the play between logos and ethos that is characteristic of Aristotelian ethics. This play, it is argued, is crucial to Wotton's conception of both judgement and architectural making     

INOPERATIVE CRITICISM: Tafuri and the Discipline of History

The vast majority of westerners living in or near cities are commuters.¹ Every day in a tidal to and fro we migrate between particular topographical points on the earth's surface. We depart and arrive at different cognitive environments, and for most, the period of ‘transit’ involves a completely different set of physical and cognitive parameters from those experienced at home or at work/ place of destination. The ‘transit’ between these two points or states of being involves, therefore, not just a physical journey, but a cognitive shift. The period of transit is a time-space void set apart from any other activity in everyday modern life Tberefore the notion of the ‘person-in-the-world’ during this practice of commuting becomes a fascinating phenomenon. Of course one popular means of commuting is the private car. During the 20^th Century, the automobile, it would universally be agreed, has moved to an unchallenged position of sovereignty as the vehicle of popular choice for commuter transport. The personal, social and environmental costs of the car to the person-and-the-world are immeasurable. Alternative modes of transport such as buses, trains, trams, ferries, the bicycle and the foot offer completely different in-the-world relationships while at the same time offering underlying benefits to the person-in-tbe-world. With cars, public transport and personal transport comes telecommunications. Telecommuting, the fourth realm of commuting, has a phenomenal potential to ‘leapfrog’ the other three to the top of the commuting world. It is certain that telecommuting will continue to flourish, but to what extent remains to be seen. The level of delight of the ‘being-in-the-world’ relationships offered by these four modes ultimately appears to correlate with the benefits that each different mode offers to the planet and the person, socially, personally and environmentally.     

From the Cold War to the warmed globe: planning,design-policy entrepreneurism,and the crises of nuclear weapons and climate change

Faced with two existential threats – nuclear war and climate change – planners have responded by proposing sweeping reforms for city-regions, often deploying the newfound rationales to re-package earlier ideas about ‘the good city’. This paper analyses how mid-twentieth-century planning discourses regarding Cold War urban dispersal in the USA might help us understand contemporary conversations about urban climate change adaptation. We apply Kingdon's Multiple Streams Analysis and his concept of policy entrepreneurs to show how planners frame problems and shape policy agendas. We propose a subtype of ‘design-policy entrepreneurs’ who use the spatial and visual tools of planning and design to advocate for preferred policies. By analysing the rhetoric and visual representations made by planners and designers from 1945 to 1965, we examine how they repurposed long-standing ideas about urban deconcentration into ‘dispersal for defence’ proposals. Such proposals for dispersing urban settlements into separated and ‘self-contained’ units received a dysfunctional partial acceptance: housing and transportation legislation embraced the dispersal part but resisted the complementary elements aimed at limiting damages from nuclear attack by concentrating development into distinct nodes. We conclude by asking how the perils of such partial policy-making success might play out on the terrain of climate change adaptation.     

Conference Bibliography

This paper looks at Jacques Tati's 1967 film ‘Playtime’ and its constructed city set on the periphery of Paris as an example of the negotiation of urban space and its prescribed ‘instructions for use‘. It explores this city of façades and choreographed subversions in relation to Rem Koolhaas’s ‘Junkspace’. Linked through their interaction with and comment on the changing Parisian landscape of the 1960s the paper then goes on to look at the development of the Centre Pompidou, and the American artist, Gordon Matta-Clark’s intervention on the site of its construction. Tati's film ‘Playtime’ was originally entitled ‘Re-creation’ and the notion of recreation permeates the case studies used, this paper and further research—finding and creating alternative spaces of play, a world apart from the allocated ‘Leisure spaces’ and ‘recreational facilities’ of an expanding Junkspace.     

‘Downtown Is for People’: The street-level approach in Jane Jacobs' legacy and its resonance in the planning debate within the complexity theory of cities

Jane Jacobs suggested that ‘just and diverse streets’ reflect the functioning of the city as ‘a problem of organised complexity’. The topic has recently been at the centre of the debate on her work. This paper looks at Jane Jacobs's reconstruction of the way a city works with reference to self-organisation and ethical aspects (trust and respect for diversity). The paper uses ‘Street-Level epistemology’ (SLe), which is a theory on the knowledge of ordinary people, in order to examine different ways to approach contemporary complex urban systems, resulting from myriads of self-organised practices and ‘vital little plans’. The paper employs Jacobs's early works on cities, in particular, a chapter in her book titled ‘Downtown Is for People’, to outline a proper Jacobsian Street-Level approach (SLa) substantiated by an ethical-cognitive component. This SLa is associated with the Complexity Theory of Cities (CTC), to improve the understanding of how complex, non-linear, discontinuous, and contingent urban systems work while constantly progressing and transforming. The paper draws on Jacobs's legacy and advocates progress through specific advancements in the debate around theoretical planning within CTC that describes the city as an emerging complex order.     

Book Reviews

This paper is part of a larger series, attempting to align Louis Kahn's ‘form and design’ theory with Platonism.¹ One obstacle to this alignment is the commonly held view that Kalm drew on historic precedents when conceiving his fundamental planning strategies, or die ‘form’ of his buildings, since Plato would have architects copy the Forms, or Ideas, directly. The opinions of the ‘source-hunters’ are reviewed, but found to contradict much of what Kahn said, as well as die opinions ofodier scholars and associates of Kahn's. The weight of the latter views casts doubt on those of die ‘source-hunters’, leaving open the possibility that Kahn drew on Forms directly, as Plato would have ‘craftsmen’ do.     

The role of international actors in low-carbon transitions of Shenzhen's International Low Carbon City in China

This study looks into one of the most promising low carbon city planning initiatives in China, namely Shenzhen's International Low Carbon City (ILCC). First as a collaborative project between the Dutch and Chinese partners, the ILCC's international partners have expanded to include other countries, such as Germany, Italy, France, Australia and the US. This paper investigates the influence of these international actors in the development process of the ILCC and their benefits in the long run, through knowledge transfer and accumulation of resource.The paper first highlights a broad understanding of ‘low carbon city’ followed by detailed discussions on discourses of ‘low carbon city’, ‘eco-city’, and ‘low carbon eco-city’ in China. Then it provides insights on knowledge transfer in low carbon city development, and particularly the Sino-Foreign cases of China. The authors then introduce the case of study (ILCC) and highlight its visions, project planning, and partnerships. Using primary and secondary data, it then maps the ILCC's international actors and their roles, and then analyses their behaviours and impacts in the project's planning and development process. Next, the paper summarises the research findings with further updates on the case of ILCC. The authors conclude that the engagement between Chinese and international partners differ in three forms and they are (1) the type of involvement; (2) the level and timeframe of involvement; (3) the level of Influence in the project's multiple stages. The paper concludes that the role played by an international partner evolves as the project proceeds.     

Pricing strategy in the US construction industry

This paper presents several issues related to pricing in construction. First, problems with current pricing strategy in construction are explored. Second, pricing strategies based on a market-based approach are proposed. Third, survey findings of the top 400 US contractors are presented regarding their current pricing practices and the applicability of the proposed pricing strategies. In conclusion, the belief that current pricing strategy in construction is predominantly cost-based is confirmed by the survey findings; indeed, in setting the markup, most contractors rely on their intuition after subjectively assessing the competition. The three internal pricing variables that have the largest statistically significant contingency coefficients with pricing strategy are ‘marketing intelligence capabilities’, ‘annual contract value’, and ‘the type of client in most projects’. ‘Owner's characteristics’, ‘competitors'characteristics’, and ‘market demand’ are statistically significant external variables in making pricing strategy decisions. A change of bidding procedure is proposed so that all parties in construction can maximize the benefits of market-based pricing strategies.     

An evaluation of current collaborative prototyping practices within the AEC industry

‘Collaborative working’ and ‘prototyping’ have both been identified by many within the industry as two methods of working that can help organisations become more profitable and productive. However, when used collectively the potential exists to bring improvements to the Architectural, Engineering and Construction sectors through the eradication of waste and re-work. The concept of ‘Collaborative Prototyping’ provides a process that challenges existing cultural attitudes and working processes and advocates a change in the way conventional projects are managed, in order to achieve a more competitive industry. This paper presents the results of a study on the evaluation of current Collaborative Prototyping practices within the Architectural, Engineering and Construction industry. It reviews existing collaborative methods of working along with current developments. An evaluation of the role of 3D modelling and prototyping practices has also been conducted, and the current levels of the industry's use are established. This paper concludes that the industry makes little use of Collaborative Prototyping, and therefore at present does not maximise the potential that prototyping and collaborative working offer in improving working practices.     

The Significance of Demographic Change in the Swiss Approach to Private Rented Housing: A Potential for Ageing in Place?

Recent findings indicate that changing social constructions of age are mirrored in a growing desire for autonomous living in later life. This individualised concept is referred to as ‘ageing in place’. This paper discusses the challenges for the housing industry and examines to what extent maintenance and development strategies of Swiss real estate investors are meeting the changing demands of older people. Drawing on a number of case studies in Switzerland the paper concludes that investors' concepts of older people and their needs are not merely out of step with the reality of older people's lives and choices but obstruct the desire to age in place. Furthermore, an analysis of the market potential of older people's wish to stay in their present home demonstrates that some investors may be failing to exploit serious business opportunities that could arise from providing services to older people.     

What is life? Exploring Mies van der Rohe's concept of architecture as a life process

From his popular motto ‘less is more’ to his concept of architecture as ‘the spatially apprehended will of the epoch’, the aphorisms of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe (1886–1969) remain one of his most memorable legacies. Despite being less well known, other such statements promoted by Mies are also important to clarify the philosophy that sustained his works. This paper investigates one of these less known yet highly revealing statements: ‘Building-art is only understandable as a life process’. Considering the broader context of Mies's discourse, philosophical readings and architectural projects, this paper argues that Mies used the term ‘life process’ to refer to a larger changing reality that united the material and the spiritual realms of life. According to Mies, the recognition of this material-spiritual unity was necessary to recover architecture's status as ‘building-art’ [Baukunst] amid an overly technological and individualistic modern age. This view of life and modernity is consistent with the writings of Rudolf Schwarz, Max Scheler and Alfred North Whitehead, which, as this paper shows, were highlighted by Mies not as sources of his thought, but as key references that could especially illuminate the significance of his work and architectural philosophy.     

Post-War Modernism: Maxwell Fry's buildings at the University of Liverpool

This paper considers the architecture and design process of Liverpool University's Veterinary School and Civil Engineering building, designed by the modernist pioneer architect, Edwin Maxwell Fry (1899–1987) in the period 1955–60. The architecture of Britain in the aftermath of the Second World War marked a departure from the modernism associated with the International Style, ‘white cubes’ and ‘primitive functionalism’, and there was a move amongst architects and reports in the architectural press that sought to review architecture through the agendas of ‘expressive’, ‘formal’ and even ‘vernacular’ design. Both of Fry's buildings initially appear as subscribers to the functionalist doctrine, adopting a sombre, even aloof exterior, but a closer inspection reveals that they are not just the routine, clichéd modern buildings that became so prevalent and scorned throughout the 1950s. They demonstrate some of the wider concerns architects had at that time, namely: monumentality, the use of art and murals as a means of conveying meaning, and a concern for context within a functional-vernacular tradition. These notions were also astutely tracked through the architectural journals along with ‘formalism’ (leading to Brutalism) and perhaps most significantly through Nikolaus Pevsner's determination to bind the English picturesque tradition with the lineage of Modernism.     

The uncanny side of the fairy tale: post-apocalyptic symbolism in Terunobu Fujimori's architecture

Having first established himself as an architectural historian, Terunobu Fujimori (b. 1946) is now more famous for his design work than for his academic publications. He has even been praised as ‘the most influential architect in Japan’ by the critic Kenjiro Okazaki (2006). Fujimori's popularity is attributable in particular to the fairy tale-like image of his architecture, which tends to appear playful as well as natural and nostalgic. However, this research focuses on the other side of the ‘fairy tale’—specifically, the strangely unfamiliar, even unsettling, feeling that his architecture evokes. Using Freud's and Vidler's notions of ‘the uncanny’ for analysis, this study identifies the contradictory sentiment residing in the hidden clashes between the natural and artificial qualities of his design. Arguably, the uncanny aspect of Fujimori's architecture stems from a post-apocalyptic sensibility imprinted in the Japanese unconscious, which is haunted by the trauma of ruin, whether caused by natural or man-made disaster. This research focus can lead to a broader cultural discourse beyond the scope of a single architect's work, relevant to all ‘modern unhomely’ societies.     

Conforming to the expectations of the profession: a Lacanian perspective on planning practice,norms and values

This article introduces and examines aspects of Lacan's critical social theory, it examines why a Lacanian psychoanalytical appoach can be regarded as pertinent to analysis of planning processes. The article introduces the notion of the Lacanian subject and explains some of the key Lacanian concepts including the ‘Real’, the ‘Other’, and the Lacanian signifier. These concepts are then related to the acquisitions of planning education and professional skill development—what ‘shapes’ the planner? The article suggests that planning practices and decision‐making are often constrained by the planner's desire to conform to self‐imposed perceptions of professional and societal expectations. These practices contribute to maintenance of the ideological edifices which constitute social reality in that they do not necessarily materialise a planner's own values and beliefs, but rather the beliefs and values which a planner ‘thinks’ that planners are supposed to have and to express in society. The article concludes with a consideration of the implications this has for planning ethics.     

Taking Root in the Silicon Forest: High-technology Firms as Surrogate Universities in Portland,Oregon

Most case studies of successful high-technology industry regions highlight the role of research universities in fostering regional economic development. The Portland, Oregon, region managed to root a thriving high-tech industry in the absence of this critical factor. In this article, I present a case study of the evolution of Portland's high-tech industry and propose that high-tech firms can act as surrogate universities that attract and develop labor, create knowledge, and function as incubators for startups. I conclude that planners working to develop high-tech industries in regions without major research universities should attract R&D-intensive firms, maintain information on key busineses and entrepreneurial ventures, support an innovation milieu, and set realistic goals.