Explicit and implicit processes in behavioural adaptation to road width

The finding that drivers may react to safety interventions in a way that is contrary to what was intended is the phenomenon of behavioural adaptation. This phenomenon has been demonstrated across various safety interventions and has serious implications for road safety programs the world over. The present research used a driving simulator to assess behavioural adaptation in drivers' speed and lateral displacement in response to manipulations of road width. Of interest was whether behavioural adaptation would occur and whether we could determine whether it was the result of explicit, conscious decisions or implicit perceptual processes. The results supported an implicit, zero perceived risk model of behavioural adaptation with reduced speeds on a narrowed road accompanied by increased ratings of risk and a marked inability of the participants to identify that any change in road width had occurred.     

Young drivers' optimism bias for accident risk and driving skill: Accountability and insight experience manipulations

This study aimed to determine whether two brief, low cost interventions would reduce young drivers’ optimism bias for their driving skills and accident risk perceptions. This tendency for such drivers to perceive themselves as more skilful and less prone to driving accidents than their peers may lead to less engagement in precautionary driving behaviours and a greater engagement in more dangerous driving behaviour. 243 young drivers (aged 17–25 years) were randomly allocated to one of three groups: accountability, insight or control. All participants provided both overall and specific situation ratings of their driving skills and accident risk relative to a typical young driver. Prior to completing the questionnaire, those in the accountability condition were first advised that their driving skills and accident risk would be later assessed via a driving simulator. Those in the insight condition first underwent a difficult computer-based hazard perception task designed to provide participants with insight into their potential limitations when responding to hazards in difficult and unpredictable driving situations. Participants in the control condition completed only the questionnaire. Results showed that the accountability manipulation was effective in reducing optimism bias in terms of participants’ comparative ratings of their accident risk in specific situations, though only for less experienced drivers. In contrast, among more experienced males, participants in the insight condition showed greater optimism bias for overall accident risk than their counterparts in the accountability or control groups. There were no effects of the manipulations on drivers’ skills ratings. The differential effects of the two types of manipulations on optimism bias relating to one's accident risk in different subgroups of the young driver sample highlight the importance of targeting interventions for different levels of experience. Accountability interventions may be beneficial for less experienced young drivers but the results suggest exercising caution with the use of insight type interventions, particularly hazard perception style tasks, for more experienced young drivers typically still in the provisional stage of graduated licensing systems.     

Hazard perception and driving experience among novice drivers

The crash risk of novice drivers decreases rapidly during the first few months of post-licensing driving, indicating that some important safety-relevant traffic skills are learnt during this period. The present study tested the hypothesis that the risk decrease is related to improved hazard perception skills. A video-based hazard perception/reaction test, measuring reaction times to 31 traffic scenes, was administered to three groups of drivers, having held a licence for 1, 5, and 9 months, respectively, and to a group of drivers who had held their licences for several years. Average reaction times tended to decrease with experience, but the decrease was not significant. There were some significant differences in the expected direction for individual test items, indicating a possible effect of experience. One half of the situations were presented together with a secondary task, in order to investigate effects of increased mental load on hazard perception. Male novice drivers had relatively longer reaction times with the secondary task, compared to both female novice drivers and male experienced drivers. It is concluded that hazard perception as tested here is probably only a minor factor in explaining the initial risk decrease among novice drivers.     

Thrill and Adventure Seeking as a modifier of the relationship of perceived risk with risky driving among young drivers

Risky driving contributes to road trauma, a leading cause of mortality among young people. Health-relevant behaviour models suggest a negative relationship between risky driving and perceived risk of its outcomes. However, high sensation seekers may value the “thrill” of the risk, and positive associations between sensation seeking and risky driving have been observed. This is the first study to examine whether aspects of sensation seeking modify the relationship between perceived risk and risky driving. Young drivers in metropolitan Sydney and rural New South Wales [NSW] (n = 797) completed a survey relating to one of the four risky driving behaviours (speeding, drink-driving, driving while fatigued, and failing to wear a seatbelt). Results suggest that the Thrill and Adventure Seeking subscale of Zuckerman's (1994) Sensation Seeking Scale moderate the relationship of perceived risk with risky driving – indicating a negative relationship for low-scores, but not high-scorers, on the TAS subscale. Thus, road safety campaigns that emphasize the riskiness of a particular behaviour may be of limited benefit to thrill and adventure seekers.     

Self-regulation of driving and its relationship to driving ability among older adults

Although it is known that older drivers limit their driving, it is not known whether this self-regulation is related to actual driving ability. A sample of 104 older drivers, aged between 60 and 92, completed a questionnaire about driving habits and attitudes. Ninety of these drivers also completed a structured on-road driving test. A measure of self-regulation was derived from drivers' self-reported avoidance of difficult driving situations. The on-road driving test involved a standard assessment used to determine fitness to drive. Driving test scores for the study were based on the number of errors committed in the driving tests, with weightings given according to the seriousness of the errors. The most commonly avoided difficult driving situations, according to responses on the questionnaire, were parallel parking and driving at night in the rain, while the least avoided situation was driving alone. Poorer performance on the driving test was not related to overall avoidance of difficult driving situations. Stronger relationships were found between driving ability and avoidance of specific difficult driving situations. These specific driving situations were the ones in which the drivers had low confidence and that the drivers were most able to avoid if they wished to.     

Risk perception of driving as a function of advanced training aimed at recognizing and handling risks in demanding driving situations

The present study examined in 224 individuals whether an advanced driving training aimed at recognizing, avoiding and handling risks in demanding driving situations, affected perceived risk of driving situations (measured by a questionnaire). The training, which involved both experience and feedback on real performance, specifically intended to emphasize the dangers in loss of control of a vehicle. With that emphasis, it was hypothesized that perceived risk would increase after as compared to before the training. In addition, this study examined whether risk perception was dependent on gender or on age. A mixed ANOVA performed on mean scores on the questionnaire yielded significant main effects for training (before/after), gender, and age. Higher levels of perceived risk were reported after the training as compared to before it, by females than by males, and by older adult drivers than by younger adult drivers. An analysis of the data of a smaller sample showed that the increment in perceived risk was still present 2 months after the training, and that it did not decrease significantly as compared to immediately after the training. These results are discussed in relation to relevant methodological issues and future research.     

Using fuzzy signal detection theory to determine why experienced and trained drivers respond faster than novices in a hazard perception test

Drivers’ hazard perception ability, as measured in video-based simulations, correlates with crash involvement, improves with experience and can be trained. We propose two alternative signal detection models that could describe individual differences in this skill. The first model states that novice drivers are poorer at discriminating more hazardous from less hazardous situations than experienced drivers. The second model proposes that novice drivers require a higher threshold of danger to be present before they notice a situation is hazardous or before they are willing to classify a situation as hazardous. We applied a technique involving fuzzy signal detection analysis to differentiate between these two models when comparing novice and experienced drivers, and trained and untrained drivers, in various video-based hazard perception measures. The data favored the second model.     

Continuing to drive while sleepy: The influence of sleepiness countermeasures,motivation for driving sleepy,and risk perception

Driver sleepiness is a major contributor to road crashes. The current study sought to examine the association between perceptions of effectiveness of six sleepiness countermeasures and their relationship with self-reports of continuing to drive while sleepy among 309 drivers after controlling for the influence of age, sex, motivation for driving sleepy, and risk perception of sleepy driving. The results demonstrate that the variables of age, sex, motivation, and risk perception were significantly associated with self-reports of continuing to drive while sleepy and only one countermeasure was associated with self-reports of continuing to drive while sleepy. Further, it was found that age differences in self-reports of continuing to drive while sleepy was mediated by participants’ motivation and risk perception. These findings highlight modifiable factors that could be focused on with interventions that seek to modify drivers’ attitudes and behaviours of driving while sleepy.     

The relationship between cognitive performance,perceptions of driving comfort and abilities,and self-reported driving restrictions among healthy older drivers

The objective of the present study was to examine the relationship between cognitive performance, driver perceptions and self-reported driving restrictions. A cross-sectional analysis was conducted on baseline data from Candrive II, a five-year prospective cohort study of 928 older drivers aged 70–94 years from seven cities. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) as well as the Trail Making Test, parts A and B. Driver perceptions were assessed using the Day and Night Driving Comfort Scales and the Perceived Driving Abilities scale, while driving practices were captured by the Situational Driving Frequency and Avoidance scales, as well as the Driving Habits and Intentions Questionnaire. The baseline data indicates this cohort is largely a cognitively intact group. Univariate regression analysis showed that longer Trails A and B completion times were significantly, but only modestly associated with reduced driving frequency and perceived driving abilities and comfort, as well as a significant tendency to avoid more difficult driving situations (all p < .05). Most of these associations persisted after adjusting for age and sex, as well as indicators of health, vision, mood and physical functioning. Exceptions were Trails A and B completion times and situational driving frequency, as well as time to complete Trails B and current driving restrictions. After adjusting for the confounding factors, the total MoCA score was not associated with any of the driving measure scores while the number of errors on Trails A was significantly associated only with situational driving frequency and number of errors on Trails B was significantly associated only with situational driving avoidance. Prospective follow-up will permit examination of whether baseline cognition or changes in cognition are associated with changes in driver perceptions, actual driving restrictions and on-road driving outcomes (e.g., crashes, violations) over time.     

Commentary training improves responsiveness to hazards in a driving simulator

Can commentary driving produce safer drivers? Producing a verbal commentary of potential hazards during driving has long been considered by the police to improve hazard perception skills. In this study we investigated whether learner drivers would benefit from being trained to produce a commentary drive. All learners were initially assessed on a virtual route in a driving simulator that contained 9 hazards. One group of drivers was then trained in commentary driving, and their subsequent simulated driving behaviour was compared to a control group. The results showed that the trained group had fewer crashes, reduced their speed sooner on approach to hazards, and applied pressure to the brakes sooner than untrained drivers. Conversely the untrained drivers’ behaviour on approach to hazards was symptomatic of being surprised at the appearance of the hazards. The benefit of training was found to be greater for certain types of hazard than others.     

Development and evaluation of a Driving Observation Schedule (DOS) to study everyday driving performance of older drivers

This paper describes the development and evaluation of an on-road procedure, the Driving Observation Schedule (DOS), for monitoring individual driving behavior. DOS was developed for use in the Candrive/Ozcandrive five-year prospective study of older drivers. Key features included observations in drivers’ own vehicles, in familiar environments chosen by the driver, with start/end points at their own homes. Participants were 33 drivers aged 75+ years, who drove their selected route with observations recorded during intersection negotiation, lane-changing, merging, low speed maneuvers and maneuver-free driving. Driving behaviors were scored by a specialist occupational therapy driving assessor and another trained observer. Drivers also completed a post-drive survey about the acceptability of DOS. Vehicle position, speed, distance and specific roadways traveled were recorded by an in-vehicle device installed in the participant's vehicle; this device was also used to monitor participants’ driving over several months, allowing comparison of DOS trips with their everyday driving. Inter-rater reliability and DOS feasibility, acceptability and ecological validity are reported here. On average, drivers completed the DOS trip in 30.48 min (SD = 7.99). Inter-rater reliability measures indicated strong agreement between the trained and the expert observers: intra-class correlations (ICC) = 0.905, CI 95% 0.747–0.965, p < 0.0001; Pearson product correlation, r (18) = .83, p < 0.05. Standard error of the measurement (SEM), method error (ME) and coefficient of variation (CV) measures were consistently small (3.0, 2.9 & 3.3%, respectively). Most participants reported being ‘completely at ease’ (82%) with the driving task and ‘highly familiar with the route’ (97%). Vehicle data showed that DOS trips were similar to participants’ everyday driving trips in roads used, roadway speed limits, drivers’ average speed and speed limit compliance. In summary, preliminary findings suggest that DOS can be scored reliably, is of feasible duration, is acceptable to drivers and representative of everyday driving. Pending further research with a larger sample and other observers, DOS holds promise as a means of quantifying and monitoring changes in older drivers’ performance in environments typical of their everyday driving.     

The contribution of perceived parental and familial characteristics to attitudes toward accompanied driving among young drivers

One of the main requirements of the graduated driving licensing system in Israel is that new drivers be accompanied by an experienced driver (usually one of their parents) for the first three months after receipt of their license. The current series of studies examined the associations between young drivers’ attitudes toward accompanied driving (ATAD) and their perception of their parents’ driving styles and parenting modes, as well as dynamic of their family. Young drivers completed questionnaires assessing their ATAD, and either perceived parental driving style (Study 1, n = 100), perceived parenting style (Study 2, n = 120), or perceived family dynamic (Study 3, n = 254). The results indicated significant associations between the young drivers’ ATAD of tension, relatedness, avoidance, disapproval, and anxiety, and their own perceptions of the characteristic driving styles of their parents (risky, anxious, angry, and careful). They also indicated significant relationship between youngsters’ ATAD and their perceptions of their parents’ parenting modes (responsive, demanding, and autonomy-granting). Finally, the results indicated significant negative associations between ATAD of tension, avoidance, disapproval, and anxiety, and family cohesion and adaptability, and a positive association between these two and relatedness. The results are discussed in respect to the relationship between the parental model and the young drivers’ ATAD in particular, and risk management in general, and practical implications of these results are offered.     

Errors and violations in relation to motorcyclists' crash risk

This study was conducted to: (a) develop a questionnaire that reliably measures the behaviour of motorcyclists and (b) test which types of behaviour predict motorcyclists' crash risk. A Motorcycle Rider Behaviour Questionnaire (MRBQ), consisting of 43 items to measure the self-reported frequency of specific riding behaviours, was developed and administered to a sample of motorcyclists (N=8666). Principal components analysis revealed a 5-factor solution (traffic errors, control errors, speed violations, performance of stunts and use of safety equipment). Generalised linear modelling showed that, while controlling for the effects of age, experience and annual mileage, traffic errors were the main predictors of crash risk. For crashes in which respondents accepted some degree of blame, control errors and speed violations were also significant predictors of crash risk. Implications of the findings are discussed in relation to deciding which countermeasures may be most effective at reducing motorcycle casualty rates.     

Driver's exposure to distractions in their natural driving environment

Unobtrusive video camera units were installed in the vehicles of 70 volunteer drivers over 1-week time periods to study drivers’ exposure to distractions. The video data were coded based on a detailed taxonomy of driver distractions along with important contextual variables and driving performance measures. Results show distractions to be a common component of everyday driving. In terms of overall event durations, the most common distractions were eating and drinking (including preparations to eat or drink), distractions inside the vehicle (reaching or looking for an object, manipulating vehicle controls, etc.), and distractions outside the vehicle (often unidentified). Distractions were frequently associated with decreased driving performance, as measured by higher levels of no hands on the steering wheel, eyes directed inside rather than outside the vehicle, and lane wanderings or encroachments. Naturalistic driving studies can provide a useful supplement to more controlled laboratory and field studies to further our understanding of the effects of all types of distractions on driving safety.     

Risk and threat factors in prior representations of driving situations among powered two-wheeler riders and car drivers

Our research objective is to contribute to gaining a better understanding of the difficulties inherent to managing interactions between power two-wheeler riders and car drivers. 132 power two-wheeler riders and 94 car drivers have been asked what they perceive as being riskiest in driving situations for the representatives of their generic reference group. From all the answers produced, only those which provide information on risk factors related to the other and the occurrence of interferences due to the dynamic situation have been retained and analysed. The results provide a partial explanation of the difficulties related to the two types of users’ taking each other into account. On the one hand, the frequency with which the other is mentioned as a source of risk is linked to the concept of conspicuity. This interpretation is related to the relative frequency of the interactions and the difference of real and perceived vulnerability between the users. On the other hand, the specific risk factors attributed to the other illustrates a mutual misunderstanding or ignorance of the driving situation's determinants. These include various practices among users which can be related to the physical and dynamic characteristics of their vehicle and their level of familiarity with other users. The potential road safety consequences of prior representations of risk factors among users are presented and suggestions for improving road user safety are proposed.     

Evidence that attitude accessibility augments the relationship between speeding attitudes and speeding behavior: A test of the MODE model in the context of driving

According to the MODE model of attitude-to-behavior processes, attitude accessibility augments attitude–behavior correspondence, reflecting an automatic influence of attitudes on behavior. We therefore tested whether attitude accessibility moderates the attitude–behavior relationship in a context that is governed by characteristically automatic behavior, namely driving. In study 1 (correlational design), participants (N = 130) completed online questionnaire measures of the valences and accessibilities of their attitudes towards speeding. Two weeks later, online questionnaire measures of subsequent speeding behavior were obtained. Attitude valence was a significantly better predictor of behavior at high (mean + 1SD) versus low (mean – 1SD) levels of attitude accessibility. In study 2 (experimental design), attitude accessibility was manipulated with a repeated attitude expression task. Immediately after the manipulation, participants (N = 122) completed online questionnaire measures of attitude valence and accessibility, and two weeks later, subsequent speeding behavior. Increased attitude accessibility in the experimental (versus control) condition generated an increase in attitude–behavior correspondence. The findings are consistent with the MODE model’s proposition that attitudes can exert an automatic influence on behavior. Interventions to reduce speeding could usefully increase the accessibility of anti-speeding attitudes and reduce the accessibility of pro-speeding attitudes.     

Hazard perception in novice and experienced drivers: The effects of sleepiness

One driver skill that has been found to correlate with crash risk is hazard perception ability. The purpose of this study was to investigate how hazard perception latencies change between high and low sleepiness for a high risk group (novice drivers) and a lower risk group (experienced drivers). Thirty-two novice drivers (aged 17-24 years) and 30 experienced drivers (aged 28-36) completed a validated video-based hazard perception test, in which participants were asked to anticipate genuine traffic conflicts in footage filmed from the driver's perspective, with separate groups tested at either 10 a.m. (lower sleepiness) or at 3 a.m. (higher sleepiness). We found a significant interaction between sleepiness and experience, indicating that the hazard perception skills of the more experienced drivers were relatively unaffected by mild increases in sleepiness while the inexperienced drivers were significantly slowed. The findings suggest that the disproportionate sleepiness-related accident involvement of young, inexperienced drivers could be partly due to a slowing of their ability to anticipate traffic hazards.     

Personality subtypes of young moped drivers, their relationship to risk-taking behavior and involvement in road crashes in an Austrian sample

Objective

This study aimed to identify subtypes of young moped drivers and analyze how these subtypes are involved in risk preferences and road crashes.

Design

A group of Austrian teenage moped drivers (213, 28% girls) completed an online questionnaire about moped usage, injuries, driving style, inattention, impulsivity, and personality according to the Five-Factor Model of Personality and Cloninger's model of personality.

Results

A cluster analysis yielded four types of moped drivers. One type was characterized by a high level of neuroticism, the second type was characterized by a risky personality and a risky driving style, the third type had a more cautious driving style, and the fourth type was characterized by a risky personality and high levels on inattention and impulsivity.

Conclusions

Our conclusions suggest that young moped drivers should not be perceived as a homogenous group, according to measures of injury prevention and intervention.     

Sleep-related car crashes: risk perception and decision-making processes in young drivers

The aim of the present study is to analyse factors affecting worries, coping strategies and decisions of young drivers regarding the risk of sleep-related car crashes. Furthermore, the study also analyses whether framing the same information about sleepiness in two different linguistic forms influences: (1) the evaluation of the level of risk associated to a specific level of drowsiness (Attribute Framing problem); (2) the willingness to enact strategies to "prevent" sleepiness before night-time driving (Goal Framing problem); (3) the choice between two different ways, both of equal expected efficacy, of lowering drowsiness (Risky decision-making Framing problem). Six hundred and ninety-five young drivers [(57.6% females, 42.4% males); mean age 20.85 years (S.D.=1.2)] answered questions on drive risk perception and sleepiness, on nocturnal driving experience and on the strategies to deal with driver sleepiness, responding to one of the two different versions of the framed problems. A sub-sample of 130 participants completed the framed problems in both versions. The results show that experiences of sleep attacks and nocturnal driving frequency in the past 6 months affect both risk perception and the preventive strategies adopted. Furthermore, the manipulation on two out of the three problems (attribute and risky decision-making frames) significantly affected the respondents' evaluation.