Experimental assessment of long-term durability of some weak rocks

Slake durability tests, point load strength tests and X-ray diffraction analyses were carried out on thirteen rock types in an attempt to correlate the durability of the rocks with their strengths and mineral compositions. A concept is proposed to describe the rock degradation characteristics from the results of slake durability test cycles. A new classification system is introduced for rock durability, which allows the prediction of the strength of a rock when it has been affected by the weathering process. The aim of the study was to predict the influence of the weathering process (simulated by wetting and drying and heating and cooling) on the durability and strength of the volcanic, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks outcropping in eastern Thailand. Field studies were carried out in an attempt to relate the heat absorption of the rocks in situ to that measured on the laboratory specimens.     

Physico-mechanical characteristics of,saprolith and mudflow deposits derived from igneous and metamorphic rocks in the central cordillera,Colombia: Genetic aspects

Geomorphological and soil mechanics studies carried out on saproliths and on mudflow deposits derived from three different lithological units outcropping in the Aburrá Valley (Colombia)—amphibolite, spilite and diorite—show a strong convergency of some of the physical properties of each group: saproliths tend to be similar, independently of their parent rocks; the same phenomenon occurs for mudflow deposits. From a genetic standpoint, these features wuld imply a predominant influence of the processes which originated both saproliths and mudflow deposits with respect to the composition of the parent rocks. For the saproliths, chemical weathering plays the main role in the homogenization of their properties; in the case of mudflows, these properties are the result of three successive processes: oversaturation, transport and consolidation of the original regolith.     

基于风化物水理特征的泥石流对岩性敏感性研究

 泥石流对不同岩性的敏感性存在明显差异,以中国泥石流最发育的小江流域为研究区,采集上、中、下游5个典型泥石流沟,9种类型岩石的19个风化物样品及5个泥石流堆积样品。通过塑、液限及渗透试验获取水理特征参数,选择与泥石流起动密切相关的塑限、塑性指数及渗透系数3个指标,并以欧式距离为基础来构建敏感性计算公式,对各指标进行敏感性综合分析。采用子流域泥石流敏感性统计分析法进行验证,研究结果表明,以风化物水理特征差异规律分析为基础的敏感性能较客观合理地刻画各岩性的敏感性规律,9种岩石的敏感性由小到大依次为：玄武岩、灰岩、白云岩、板岩、第四纪冲洪积、砂岩、粉砂岩、千枚岩以及泥岩。     

General report,session I: Engineering properties of carbonate rocks

After reviewing the geological classification of carbonate rocks, a method of describing carbonate rocks for engineering purposes is developed following the recommendations set out by the I.A.E.G. Mapping Commission. Particular attention is paid to the details of the weathering profile developed on carbonate rocks. The engineering classification of carbonate rocks is based on both the engineering behaviour of the rock as a material and in the mass. Physical properties, including strength and deformation characteristics, are used to determine a modulus ratio for a wide range of limestones including the English chalk. In addition to rock material properties, and engineering classification of the rock mass has to take account of structure, discontinuities, and details of the weathering profile. Assessment of rock mass properties requiresin situ testing to determine deformation characteristics. If the usually limited amount of data on such quantitativein situ properties is related to other measures of rock quality, then engineering geological mapping can be used to extend the applicability of the limitedin situ data to a whole site. RQD has been related to the compressibility of the rock mass, and a rock mass factor has been proposed that links the deformability of the rock material to that of the rock mass. Rock mass classifications for large underground openings may be used with limestones. Engineering problems associated with carbonate rocks are briefly reviewed, as are the properties of limestones as a building stone and as aggregate.     

岩体风化程度两级模糊综合评判研究

通过引入弹模弱化系数KE和粘聚力弱化系数Kc，建立了岩体强度和变形参数与其风化程度的联系。由于影响岩体风化程度的因素多而复杂且影响程度不同，特总结了四类20项主要影响因素，采用两级模糊综合评判方法对黄麦岭磷矿采场边坡岩体的风化程度进行研究，取得较满意的结果。     

岩石风化程度特征指标的分析研究

岩石风化程度的划分及工程特性研究，对于工程基础面高程的选择以及工程环境或工程材料的利用具有重要意义。关于岩石风化程度划分目前多是采用工程地质定性评价方法，依赖定性的不确定判据进行岩石风化程度划分带有很大随意性。因此，研究和发展定量分析评价方法是必要的。岩石经过风化作用，形成的风化裂隙具有无方向性、不规则发育等特点，与构造作用形成的微裂隙有着本质区别；风化作用改变了岩石的矿物成分，岩石在风化过程中表现出来的阶段性，反映了岩石的不同风化程度。基于对风化岩石显微裂隙的发育状况及其次生充填特点、长石蚀变性质、粘土矿物成分变化等定性资料的分析研究，给出了定量化的统计，建立了岩石风化程度划分的判据。给出的定量指标很好地反映了风化岩石质量，且与反映岩石风化程度的一些物理力学指标存在良好相关性。     

Engineering aspects of limestone weathering in Istanbul, Turkey

 Devonian limestones are widespread in the eastern part of Istanbul, Turkey. To assess the influence of weathering on the geological and geomechanical characteristics of these rocks, research was carried out on some profiles from the study area. Field observations show that the weathering has been rapid and the bedrock has been weathered to a depth of up to 8 m. A model for the weathering of limestones is established and modifications proposed to the material and mass weathering schemes for characterisation of the limestone for engineering uses, as both foundation and construction material. The paper also presents the results of field and laboratory investigations, including weathering characteristics and physical and mechanical properties. Interrelationships were determined for all test results. It is concluded that chemical characteristics and the porosity are good indicators of weathering. Received: 10 July 1999 · Accepted: 17 September 1999     

红砂岩的一种新的抗风化化学加固方法试验研究

以浙江龙游石窟群围岩的抗风化加固为研究背景,对红砂岩试件进行了多种化学材料处理方案的室内试验,通过对试验结果及相应试验参数的分析,提出了一种新的化学加固材料CRS。利用该材料进行加固时首先利用无机硅与砂岩的反应物填充岩石的孔隙,然后用有机硅与岩石中的羟基反应,以脱水缩合,达到加固目的。将岩石浸泡在该材料的溶液中,与浸泡前相比,岩石的弹性波速度增加15%左右,粘聚力增加50%,内摩擦角变化不大,在围压5 MPa时,三轴抗压强度增加50%左右。将选定的化学加固材料喷洒在龙游石窟的多处围岩表面上,岩体结构明显致密,加固深度大于3 cm,围岩的弹性波速度比加固前提高了5%(淋水岩体)～10%(较干岩体),加固将近1 a时间,被加固的岩石表面和内部均未发现颜色的明显改变。     

Weathering and erosion fluxes of arsenic in watershed mass budgets

Arsenic in natural waters and in soils represents a serious health hazard. Natural sources of this element in soil are the subject of this communication. Weathering mass balance of As and rates of weathering in soils are evaluated from monitored inputs and outputs in two small watersheds. These watersheds are located within the Celina-Mokrsko gold district, Czech Republic. Annual chemical weathering fluxes of As are calculated from the monthly weighted means of stream water and groundwater. The fluxes are corrected for atmospheric precipitation, agrochemical inputs, and biological uptake. Mechanical and chemical weathering rates of the arsenopyrite-bearing rocks in the watersheds were estimated from mass balance data on sodium and silica. The input of As due to total weathering of bedrock was estimated to be 1369 g ha(-1)yr(-1) in the Mokrsko watershed (MW) and 81 g ha(-1)yr(-1) in the Celina watershed (CW). These results indicate that the annual weathering rate of As in the watersheds represents more than 95% of the total As input to the soil. Accumulation rate of As in the soil was estimated at 311 g ha(-1)yr(-1) in MW and 69 g ha(-1)yr(-1) in CW. The mass balance method for calculation of weathering rate of As was used, and the results suggest that weathering could be the most important process in the As biogeochemistry of the areas with elevated As content in the bedrock. Simple model of weathering and erosion can be used successfully in estimating their role in As pollution on the scale of small watershed. The method is also useful for indicating the mass balance of As in soils that is controlled by both the natural and anthropogenic inputs and outputs of As.     

峨眉山玄武岩系底部沉积火山碎屑岩的风化特征及其机制

 位于峨眉山玄武岩系底部的沉凝灰岩和沉火山角砾岩球状风化强烈,风化程度明显高于上覆玄武质熔岩。与母岩相比,腐岩化学组分淋失严重,次生微孔隙发育,但单体孔隙尺寸细小,具有低密度、高孔隙度、高渗透率、高容水度及高持水度特征。2种具有块状构造的沉积火山碎屑岩均由玄武质火山碎屑和正常海相碳酸盐岩碎屑组成,分属钙质基性沉凝灰岩和钙质基性沉火山角砾岩,它们具有类似的化学组成,而且风化过程中的组分流失与相对富集规律也基本一致。非饱和带环境下的温度波动可在岩石中2类不同碎屑颗粒之间形成贴粒微缝;微缝内的凝结水首先溶解灰岩碎屑,并逐渐在结构体表面一定厚度范围内形成吸水–贮水能力远大于一般岩石腐岩壳的海绵状结构层。该结构层吸收–贮存的液态水一方面保证壳内火山碎屑的溶解,一方面向其内侧风化前锋的扩展进程提供水量支持。钙质基性沉火山碎屑岩的风化进程可明显地划分为分别以灰岩碎屑和玄武质火山碎屑溶解为主、先后彼此搭接的2个阶段。     

酸雨作用下碳酸盐岩类文物的溶蚀过程与机理

通过模拟硫酸型酸雨加速侵蚀石灰岩的室内试验,监测了试验过程中试样的质量变化、Ca~(2+)释放量、酸雨pH值变化、计算了H~+消耗速率及试样的表面硬度变化率,对试样的微观结构进行了观察和测量,对比分析了酸雨的淋蚀作用和浸泡作用,根据试验结果讨论了酸雨溶蚀石灰岩的机理,并分析了孔隙特征对石灰岩溶蚀过程的影响。试验结果表明:酸雨的淋蚀作用会溶解石灰岩中的碳酸盐并剥离岩石表面,造成新鲜岩石继续与酸雨作用,加速了石灰岩的质量损失和Ca~(2+)的释放,同时试样的表面硬度和表层微观结构发生相应的改变,但是,溶蚀产物会部分填充石灰岩内的微孔隙和微裂隙,可以有效减缓小尺寸孔隙(0.01μm)的破坏;孔隙特征对酸雨侵蚀石灰岩的过程有重要影响,孔隙率越高,酸雨越容易进入岩石内部并造成破坏;孔隙率一定的情况下,孔隙尺寸越大,酸雨作用的时间和程度会越充分,对石灰岩的破坏也越严重;在相同的试验条件下,试验选取的3种石灰岩中南响堂山石窟石灰岩的抗酸雨侵蚀能力最弱。     

Applicability of the geological strength index (GSI) classification for very weak and sheared rock masses. The case of the Athens Schist Formation

 The Athens Schist Formation includes a wide variety of metasedimentary rocks, varying from strong or medium strong rocks such as sericite metasandstone, limestone, greywacke, sericite schist through to weak rocks such as metasiltstone, clayey and silty shale and phyllite. The overall rock mass is highly heterogeneous and anisotropic owing to the combined effect of advanced weathering and severe tectonic stressing that gave rise to intense folding and shearing followed by extensional faulting, which resulted in highly weathered rock masses and numerous shear and/or mylonite zones with distinct downgraded engineering properties. This paper is focused on the applicability of the GSI classification system to these highly heterogeneous rock masses and proposes an extension of the GSI system to account for the foliated or laminated weak rocks in the lower range of its applicability. Received: 5 March 1998 · Accepted: 13 July 1998     

Weathering indices and their applicability for crystalline rocks

In the recent past, several weathering indices have been proposed to characterize the extent of weathering and weatherability depending upon the nature and requirement of the study. The weathering index provides a quantitative measure of the extent of weathering of rock; hence it can provide input to the prediction models to assess the strength and deformational properties of rocks and classifications of weathered rock material. In the present study some of the important weathering indices, broadly categorized as chemical, (micro) petrographical and engineering weathering indices, are reviewed and studied experimentally for three common rocks of India, namely granite of Malanjkhand, basalt of Nagpur and quartzite of Delhi, along with results of other rocks reported by other researchers. The study reveals that none of the existing chemical weathering indices is valid for genetically different common rock types and useful for engineering purposes. However, loss on ignition (LOI) may provide an approximate estimation of altered minerals (clays and hydroxides) in tested rocks. It has also shown good correlation with petrographic indices and engineering index properties. Among the petrographic indices, crack density (ρ_cr) and unsound constituent (an input to the micropetrographic index) indices provide good correlation with engineering index properties. To quantify the extent of weathering in terms of strength degradation due to weathering in rock, an index is suggested – strength ratio (R_s) – which is the percentage of uniaxial compressive strength (σ_c) of weathered rock with respect to σ_c of fresh rock. Its significance is shown statistically through the relationships with other indices for several rock types including sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Electronic Publication     

Influence of weathering on the engineering properties of Harsit granitic rocks (NE Turkey)

Weathering and hydrothermal alteration of the granitic rocks in the Eastern Black Sea Region (NE Turkey) are important phenomena affecting the engineering projects in the region. The study investigated the probable paths of rock-forming mineral transformations due to weathering in the Harsit granitoid rocks, the changes of the major oxides as a consequence of weathering and the effects of weathering on the engineering properties. To identify the changes in the major oxides, the volume concentrations were considered in relation to the dry density. Chemical leaching during weathering was shown to be significant in changing the minerals. It was concluded that the engineering properties of the weathered granitic rocks can be most reliably predicted by P-wave velocity.      

The effect of weathering on durability and deformability properties of granitoid rocks

In this paper, the effects of weathering on durability and deformability properties for three different types of granitoid rocks were investigated. Five weathering grades ranging from fresh to completely weathered rocks were considered for each rock type. Deformability has been evaluated based on failure strain, tangent and secant modulus. For measuring these parameters, at least five uniaxial compressive strength tests with axial strain recorded were conducted on each weathering grade. To assess the weathering effect on the durability behavior of these rocks, a slake durability test was performed up to 40 cycles. The obtained results indicated that uniaxial compressive strength and elastic modulus dramatically decrease with increasing weathering grade. After moderately weathering grade, remarkable damage was observed in the structure and fabric of considered rocks. The results from slake durability tests showed that the slake durability index for each weathering grade has a certain changes trend which can be used in determination of the weathering grade and the long-term durability assessment. Moreover, the results showed that for evaluation of the long-term durability of the mentioned rock types, at least eight cycles should be considered, while two cycles were sufficient for estimation of weathering grade.     

DEM investigation of weathered rocks using a novel bond contact model

The distinct element method(DEM) incorporated with a novel bond contact model was applied in this paper to shed light on the microscopic physical origin of macroscopic behaviors of weathered rock, and to achieve the changing laws of microscopic parameters from observed decaying properties of rocks during weathering. The changing laws of macroscopic mechanical properties of typical rocks were summarized based on the existing research achievements. Parametric simulations were then conducted to analyze the relationships between macroscopic and microscopic parameters, and to derive the changing laws of microscopic parameters for the DEM model. Equipped with the microscopic weathering laws, a series of DEM simulations of basic laboratory tests on weathered rock samples was performed in comparison with analytical solutions. The results reveal that the relationships between macroscopic and microscopic parameters of rocks against the weathering period can be successfully attained by parametric simulations. In addition, weathering has a significant impact on both stressestrain relationship and failure pattern of rocks.     

Application of present indices of chemical weathering for precambrian metamorphic rocks in Sri Lanka

Weathered and fresh samples of Sri Lancan rocks (metamorphic) were collected from various localities and analysed for major elements by XRF method (Rigaku, KG-X System, Japan). The amount of water was found by ignation method. The XRF results were used for various weathering indices to find the most suitable chemical index of weathering applicable to Sri Lanka. The values of each index for all samples were obtained and their variations were compared. Out of eight different chemical indices of weathering Ruxton's Ratio, Product Index and Weathering Potential Index are most suitable to find the variations of the degree of weathering in the Sri Lankan rocks. Measuring of H₂O(+) amount of rock material is a good and reliable method to find the degree of weathering to a certain extent.     

Departure of soft rock mass from undrained response in drilled shaft and plate load tests

The average degree of consolidation of soft rock mass in the immediate vicinity of the base of drilled shaft or plate load tests was evaluated using the Biot Three-Dimensional Consolidation Theory. The compressibility parameters of soft rock mass were estimated using the contact pressure and displacement relationships obtained from the in situ drilled shaft and plate load tests. It was found that typical drilled shaft and plate load tests on soft rocks are drained to partially drained, with the average degree of consolidation dependent on the rock type and weathering condition, foundation diameter, and the loading stage. It was also determined that drained behavior is observed under service conditions due to the low compressibility of soft rocks in the early stages of loading.     

Classification of geological and engineering properties in weak rock: a case study of a tunnel in a fault zone in southeastern Korea

Given that the rock mass classifications of weak rocks observed in tunnels are evaluated only as ‘poor rock mass’ or grades IV–V using existing rock mass classification methods, a new scheme is needed that would better distinguish the various geological properties of weak rocks. In this study, geological and engineering properties of weak rocks were classified based on the analysis results of a total of 55 faces in a tunnel that passes through a fault zone in southeastern South Korea. Geological observations, point load tests, and Schmidt hammer tests were conducted to analyze the properties of the weak rocks. Through this analysis, the weak rocks were classified into two weathering types: ‘disintegrated rocks’ and ‘decomposed rocks’. This division is based on the tectonic mechanisms and parameters necessary to determine the engineering geological properties of individual rock-weathering types according to their geological properties. The ‘disintegrated rocks’ have been physically weathered by brittle deformation and are classified into three subtypes using the rock quality designation (RQD) and joint set number (J_n), which can characterize the discontinuity properties of the rocks. Point load tests were conducted on these individual subtypes to calculate the point load index (Is₍₅₀₎). The resultant values are clearly related to the assigned three subtypes. The ‘decomposed rocks’ have been chemically weathered by ductile deformation and are classified into five subtypes based on the results of Schmidt hammer tests conducted on faces and Is₍₅₀₎ values calculated using the average of the Schmidt hammer values. The geological properties of the individual subtypes of the ‘disintegrated rocks’ and ‘decomposed rocks’ are clearly related to their engineering properties. Based on these results, rock mass classification diagrams are proposed that can be simply and easily applied to weak rocks.

     

A proposed weathering classification for basalts and their engineering properties (Turkey)

Most of the volcanic rocks widespread in Turkey are basalt. The effect of weathering processes on the physical and mechanical properties of this type of rock is important. To assess these properties and relations to each other, a study was undertaken in the Niksar region. A detailed investigation was carried out on basalts in the road cuttings of the Niksar ring road and Ünye-Akku?-Niksar highway alignments. A new classification system for basaltic rocks which are substantially influenced by weathering is proposed. The basic engineering properties of the basalt representing each weathering grade were determined. The properties tested are dry density, porosity, coefficient of permeability, uniaxial compressive strength, tensile strength and Young’s modulus. Interrelationships were determined for all test results. It is concluded that there is a substantial degradation in the engineering properties of the rock beyond a specific degree of weathering.