Fungal compositions and diversities on indoor surfaces with visible mold growths in residential buildings in the Seoul Capital Area of South Korea

Indoor visible mold growths are known to be associated with allergies and respiratory illnesses. However, a question remains of their compositions and diversities. Using swab sampling and high‐throughput DNA sequencing, this study analyzed taxonomic compositions and diversities of fungi on indoor surfaces laden with visible mold growths in residential apartments in South Korea. The sequencing results showed low species diversities with Shannon indices ranging from 0.14 to 2.29 (mean = 1.11). Several allergy‐related genera were detected on the same surface, where the most abundant Cladosporium with a mean relative abundance of 41% co‐occurred with less abundant Aspergillus (0.094%), Rhodotorula (6.3%), Cryptococcus (3.7%), Alternaria (4.1%), and Crivellia (17%). β diversity analyses showed significant differences in the fungal communities between enclosed balconies and other indoor areas (P < 0.05, ANOSIM), emphasizing a need to sample at multiple indoor locations when assessments are made for indoor visible mold growths. High‐throughput sequencing is powerful in characterizing compositions and diversities of fungal communities. Future studies should examine the relationships between taxonomic compositions and diversities of indoor visible molds and health outcomes of allergies and respiratory illnesses in residential buildings.     

Response of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) to stress induced by different types of pollutants – testing the fluctuating asymmetry

Damage caused to pine forests by industrial pollution is observed even several decades after emissions have stopped down. A simple morphological feature – the leaf fluctuating asymmetry – was used for assessing the condition of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) stands growing in a heavily degraded area. In 2011, a study was performed on the developmental instability of needles in four naturally reforested Polish populations of P. sylvestris. Studies were conducted within the protective zone at a zinc smelter, a copper smelter, a cement plant and train tracks. All selected areas manifested a high extent of anthropogenic pollution‐induced environmental degradation until the end of the 90s. Currently, a reduced level of environmental pollution is recorded at these sites. Control group was a natural population of Scots pine from the region of National Park of Wielkopolska. The results confirm the usefulness of fluctuating asymmetry as a highly sensitive indicator of non‐specific stress. Also, it was shown that in areas degraded by human activity, poor condition of Scots pine persists that the stress factor has been eliminated. This tendency occurs particularly to areas contaminated by heavy metals.     

Detection and estimation trends linked to air quality and mortality on French Riviera over the 1990-2005 period

There is a profound relation between human health and well being from the one side and air pollution levels from the other. Air quality in South of France and more specifically in Nice, is known to be bad, especially in summer. The non-parametric Mann-Kendall test has been developed for detecting and estimating monotonic trends in the time series and applied in our study at annual values of pollutants air concentrations and mortality. An important objective of many environmental monitoring programs is to detect changes or trends in pollution levels over time. Over the period 1990-2005, concerning the emissions of main pollutants, we obtained significant decreasing trends. By considering the ozone mean values in urban areas over the 1997-2005 period, an increase of 3.0% year^− 1 was obtained with annual averages and 3.9% year^− 1 with median values. A clear increasing trend for PM₁₀ ambient concentrations is obtained. In addition, we observed an increase of the Olea (and Grass) pollination season. Over the same period, an annual change rate of +0.31% year^− 1 for “airway diseases” and of + 2.50% year^− 1 for “unknown causes” were identified in the “Alpes Maritimes” county. To see the results, there seems to be a short-term link between the levels of these pollutants and mortality for respiratory causes. The other pollutants concentration showed a downward trend reflecting the reduction policy of the emissions. In addition, we obtained significant decreasing trends concerning the “ischemic heart diseases” (− 1.20% year^− 1) and “asthma” (− 4.03% year^− 1) categories. No significant gender-related difference was identified for these groups.     

Aqei and air pollution deposition rates at Visakhapatnam,India

A case study for assessing the air environmental status due to air emissions is elaborated for the highly industrialised city of Visakhapatnam. The ambient air quality and rain water composition was monitored at 16 stations during post monsoon season, October ‐January, 1998. These investigations of air quality status and air pollutant deposition rates predict that the city of Visakhapatnam is progressing to be one of the highly polluted cities of India. The industrial zones have recorded high pollution levels for criteria pollutants‐Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM) Sulphur‐dioxide (SO₂) and Nitrogen‐dioxide (NO₂). The Air Quality Exposure Index (AQEI) computed from the observed data indicated that out of 16 sampling stations, four of them were in highly polluted, six fall in moderately polluted categories, and only one in a clean category. Total deposition of SO₂ and NO₂ (in wet and dry forms) estimated stand to be 149.7, 92.98, 43.95meq/m²/yr in industrial, commercial and residential areas, respectively. A strategy for sustainable air quality through the Critical Load concept has been discussed.     

Estimation of horizontal diffuse solar radiation from common meteorological parameters: a case study for Jeddah,Saudi Arabia

The measured data of global and diffuse solar radiation on a horizontal surface, number of sunshine hours, mean daily ambient temperature, maximum and minimum ambient temperatures, relative humidity and amount of cloud cover, for Jeddah (latitude 21° 42′ 37″ N, longitude 39° 11′ 12″ E), Saudi Arabia for the period (1996–2006) are analysed. The data are employed to develop empirical correlations between the monthly average daily diffuse fraction (H _d /H) or diffuse transmittance (H _d /H ₀) and various meteorological parameters such as relative number of sunshine hours (s/s ₀), ambient temperature T, relative humidity R _h and amount of cloud cover c _w. The derived correlations are evaluated by making comparisons between measured and calculated values of monthly average daily diffuse radiation H _d. All the proposed correlations are found to be able to predict the monthly and annual averages daily diffuse radiation with excellent accuracy. It is also inferred that, if the data of the monthly average daily global radiation H and number of bright sunshine hours s are not available, the values of H _d for the hot-humid zone of Saudi Arabia can be estimated with a reasonable accuracy from the correlations between H _d /H ₀ and the mean daily ambient temperature T.     

山东济南市先行区浅层地下水有机污染特征

为初步了解山东济南市先行区浅层地下水有机污染现状,根据研究区68件内浅层地下水有机物检测结果,统计了检出组分、检出率、超标率,评价检出有机污染物环境影响程度,分析其平面分布特征和季节变化规律,认为,区内浅层地下水有机污染物1,2-二氯乙烷、苯并(a)芘检出率较高,苯并(a)芘超标率和超标倍数最高。有机污染评价显示苯并(a)芘环境影响度AS_i计算值为6.0>1.0,已经在某些地区影响了环境健康。研究区浅层地下水有机污染平面上呈点状分布,在组分上呈现复合污染特征,且有机物检出率、超标率具有明显的季节性,检出率丰水期>枯水期,最大超标倍数丰水期>枯水期,分析原因与丰水期大气降水溶解入渗有关。     

Association of ambient air pollution with hospital outpatient and emergency room visits in Shanghai, China

Few studies exist in China examining the association of ambient air pollution with morbidity outcomes. We conducted a time-series analysis to examine the association of outdoor air pollutants (PM₁₀, SO₂, and NO₂) with hospital outpatient and emergency room visits in Shanghai, China, using 3 years of daily data (2005-2007). Hospital and air pollution data were collected from the Shanghai Health Insurance Bureau and Shanghai Environmental Monitoring Center. Using a natural spline model, we examined effect of air pollutants with different lag structures including both single-day lag and multi-day lag. We examined effects of air pollution for the warm season (from April to September) and cool season (from October to March) separately. We found outdoor air pollution (SO₂ and NO₂) was associated with increased risk of hospital outpatient and emergency room visits in Shanghai. The effect estimates varied for different lag structures of pollutants’ concentrations. For lag 3, a 10 μg/m³ increase in concentration of PM₁₀, SO₂ and NO₂ corresponded to 0.11% (95%CI: −0.03%, 0.26%), 0.34% (95%CI: 0.06%, 0.61%) and 0.55% (95%CI: 0.14%, 0.97%) increase of outpatient visit; and 0.01% (95%CI: −0.09%, 0.10%), 0.17% (95%CI: 0.00%, 0.35%) and 0.08% (95%CI: −0.18%, 0.33%) increase of emergency room visit. The associations appeared to be more evident in the cool season than in the warm season. In conclusion, short-term exposure to outdoor air pollution was associated with increased risk of hospital outpatient and emergency room visits in Shanghai. Our analyses provide evidence that the current air pollution level has an adverse health effect and strengthen the rationale for further limiting air pollution levels in the city.     

Salt damage to brick kiln walls in Japan: spatial and seasonal variation of efflorescence and moisture content

To clarify the mechanism of salt fretting of a brick building, monthly observations were made over one year at a two-storey brick kiln in central Japan. Products of weathering that had fallen were collected and weighed; salts were identified using XRD and the moisture content of the brick was measured at its surface using a portable infrared optical moisture meter. Gypsum (CaSO₄·2H₂O) was found at the bottom of the first floor wall in the warm and humid season. Thenardite (Na₂SO₄) is dominant on the first floor wall; it is abundant in the cold and dry season but sparse in the warm and humid season. Magnesium sulphate is dominant on the second floor wall; epsomite (MgSO₄·7H₂O) was observed in the dry-to-wet season and hexahydrite (MgSO₄·6H₂O) in the wet-to-dry season. Seasonal changes in salt abundance result from the temperature dependence of the solubilities and equilibrium relative humidities (ERH) of each salt. The amount of brick decay material due to salt weathering is much greater from the second floor wall than from the first floor wall and is greater from spring to the end of summer. These seasonal and spatial variations of the rate of brick decay can be explained by a combination of factors: (1) the types of salt, (2) efflorescence or sub-florescence and (3) salt deliquescence.     

Tropospheric H2 budget and the response of its soil uptake under the changing environment

Molecular hydrogen (H₂) is an indirect greenhouse gas present at the trace level in the atmosphere. So far, the sum of its sources and sinks is close to equilibrium, but its large-scale utilization as an alternative energy carrier would alter its atmospheric burden. The magnitude of the emissions associated with a future H₂-based economy is difficult to predict and remains a matter of debate. Previous attempts to predict the impact that a future H₂-based economy would exert on tropospheric chemistry were realized by considering a steady rate of microbial-mediated soil uptake, which is currently responsible of ~ 80% of the tropospheric H₂ losses. Although soil uptake, also known as dry deposition is the most important sink for tropospheric H₂, microorganisms involved in the activity remain elusive. Given that microbial-mediated H₂ soil uptake is influenced by several environmental factors, global change should exert a significant effect on the activity and then, assuming a steady H₂ soil uptake rate for the future may be mistaken. Here, we present an overview of tropospheric H₂ sources and sinks with an emphasis on microbial-mediated soil uptake process. Future researches are proposed to investigate the influence that global change would exert on H₂ dry deposition and to identify microorganisms involved H₂ soil uptake activity.     

STEMS-Air: a simple GIS-based air pollution dispersion model for city-wide exposure assessment

Current methods of air pollution modelling do not readily meet the needs of air pollution mapping for short-term (i.e. daily) exposure studies. The main limiting factor is that for those few models that couple with a GIS there are insufficient tools for directly mapping air pollution both at high spatial resolution and over large areas (e.g. city wide). A simple GIS-based air pollution model (STEMS-Air) has been developed for PM₁₀ to meet these needs with the option to choose different exposure averaging periods (e.g. daily and annual). STEMS-Air uses the grid-based FOCALSUM function in ArcGIS in conjunction with a fine grid of emission sources and basic information on meteorology to implement a simple Gaussian plume model of air pollution dispersion. STEMS-Air was developed and validated in London, UK, using data on concentrations of PM₁₀ from routinely available monitoring data. Results from the validation study show that STEMS-Air performs well in predicting both daily (at four sites) and annual (at 30 sites) concentrations of PM₁₀. For daily modelling, STEMS-Air achieved r² values in the range 0.19-0.43 (p < 0.001) based solely on traffic-related emissions and r² values in the range 0.41-0.63 (p < 0.001) when adding information on ‘background’ levels of PM₁₀. For annual modelling of PM₁₀, the model returned r² in the range 0.67-0.77 (P < 0.001) when compared with monitored concentrations. The model can thus be used for rapid production of daily or annual city-wide air pollution maps either as a screening process in urban air quality planning and management, or as the basis for health risk assessment and epidemiological studies.     

LES and RANS comparison of flow and pollutant dispersion in urban environment

This study investigates air pollution dispersion in urban areas by means of Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD). The commercial CFD software FLUENT was used to implement two different turbulence simulation methods (RANS and LES), in domains similar to complex urban environments. Particularly, different combinations of roof shapes were studied and simulation results of pollutant (ethane) concentrations were compared against experimental data. The building height (H) to the neighbour building distance (B) ratio was also taken into consideration. Previous studies showed that both RANS and LES models are accurate enough to predict pollutant concentrations fields in B/H = 1. In the present study the incapability of RANS models to predict accurately pollutant concentration in B/H = 0.5 for all roof shapes configurations is revealed.     

Intense winter atmospheric pollution episodes affecting the Western Mediterranean

The geographic location of the Western Mediterranean Basin and its peculiar topography, the climatic conditions and the intense anthropogenic and natural emissions of atmospheric pollutants are key factors necessary to interpret the atmospheric aerosol phenomenology over this area. During the cold season it is common to have severe atmospheric particulate matter (PM) pollution episodes (of an anthropogenic origin) affecting this region, not only in the urban and industrial areas but also in the regional and rural sites. During these episodes, the midday hourly PM₁ levels at regional background sites are in many cases higher than those at urban areas. Around 10% of the days under winter anticyclonic conditions registered similar PM₁ levels at the regional background than at the urban area and, sporadically the daily PM₁ levels at the regional background sites may exceed those at urban sites. Furthermore, the very high hourly PM₁ levels measured at regional background sites during these episodes are not regularly attained in the closest urban areas, which leads to the hypothesis that an important formation of secondary aerosols occurs during the transport of the polluted air masses towards the elevated rural sites.The interpretation of the variability of PM levels and composition (2002-2008) at one urban site (Barcelona) and at one regional background site (Montseny) allows us to illustrate the phenomenology of these scenarios, to quantify the mean annual contributions to the PM levels and to identify their main tracers. Ammonium nitrate appears to be the most abundant compound during these scenarios, although organic species and trace metals also increase markedly. Owing to the intensity, composition and recurrence of these atmospheric pollution episodes, important health, climatic and ecological implications may be derived.     

Self-purification constants for a Nigerian stream

By a simulation method, the reaeration (k₂) and biodegradation (k₁) constants for a shallow turbulent stream in Ibadan have been estimated at 11.45 day⁻¹ and 3.33 day⁻¹ respectively. The high F-factor (k₂/k₁) of 3.44 confirmed the fairly high self-purification capacity of the stream suggested by a comparison of the water quality of the polluted stream at several points downstream of the pollution source.     

A GIS-based method for modelling air pollution exposures across Europe

A GIS-based moving window approach was developed as a means for generating high resolution air pollution maps over large geographic areas. The approach is demonstrated by modelling annual mean NO₂ pollution for the EU-15 (excluding Sweden) at the 1 km level on the basis of emissions and meteorological data. Models were developed using monitoring data from 714 background NO₂ sites for 2001 and validated by comparing predicted with observed NO₂ concentrations for a reserved set of 228 background sites. First the emission map (NO_x) was derived by disaggregating national emissions estimates, categorised by source, to a 1 km grid, using proxies including population and road density, traffic statistics and land cover. A set of annuli was then constructed, of varying radii, and these passed over the emissions grid to derive a calibration between measured annual average concentrations at each monitoring site and distance-weighted emissions in the surrounding area, using a focalsum function. The resulting model was then used to predict concentrations at the reserved set of validation sites, and measures of performance (R², RMSE and fractional bias) obtained. Validation gave R² = 0.61, RMSE = 6.59 and FB = − 0.01, and indicated performance equivalent to universal kriging and better than ordinary kriging and land use regression.     

Diversity, biotic and similarity indices: A review with special relevance to aquatic ecosystems

Diversity Indices, Biotic Indices and Similarity Indices are reviewed considering their ecological application, both theoretical and practical. Eighteen diversity indices in eight groups, nineteen biotic indices in ten groups and five similarity indices are examined for their applicability to biological systems, particularly aquatic ecosystems. All the diversity indices were found unsuitable except for Simpsons D, Hurlberts PIE, indices based on the theory of Runs (SCI and TU) and possibly McIntosh's M. Indices based on information theory, such as H′ and H, although the most commonly used diversity indices were unsatisfactory due to the lack of exploration of their biological relevance. The use of H′ in aquatic ecosystems is only justified until the more satisfactory indices are adequately field tested.Biotic indices are highly specialised for a particular type of water pollution, usually organic pollution. Chutter's and Chandler's biotic index appear to be most favoured. In their present form, however, such indices are necessarily limited to the geographical area in which the tolerance lists were compiled. Although many comparisons have been made between diversity indices and biotic indices, these were found to be spurious as one index reflects community structure the other the physiological response of indicator species to one type of pollution. Such comparisons have usually been justified by claiming that one index performs better when compared to the term “water quality”, which is usually left undefined.The five similarity indices examined have been used in aquatic systems. It is not clear which of these indices is best to use. The percentage similarity index (PSC) and Pinkham and Pearson's index (B) appear to be most favoured for aquatic systems, though there is a need for further research and field testing of similarity indices for water pollution.The relationship and definitions of diversity and stability are examined. Though discussion is by no means concluded on this topic it is clear that diversity does not automatically lead to either stability or instability but may be found with both. Disturbance to an ecosystem may often increase diversity provided it is of intermediate frequency, yet an ecosystem may also become more diverse without becoming less stable.The numbers of these three types of indices have become legion, as has their use. It is time that only those indices with biological relevance were used. It is hoped that work will now concentrate on the promising members of the two indices of community structure (diversity and similarity) as these are of broad applicability while biotic indices are limited to one or a few pollutants and one geographical area.     

The role of organic matter content and humus quality in the maintenance of soil fertility and in environmental protection

The role of organic matter in soil fertility has been well known for hundreds of years, but the role of humus quality and its environmental functions has been discovered only during the last 30 years. We outlined in an earlier study our equivalent humus parameter for the characterization of humus content and humus quality, EH_G=H_{t ha-1}K, where H_{t ha-1} is the humus content in tonnes per hectare at a depth of 1 m and K is the humus quality parameter calculated from extinction ratios of 1% NaF and 0.5% NaOH soil humus extracts. K values vary greatly; soils with raw organic materials show values around 0.01, whereas soils with the best humus quality (chernozems) have values of about 10. In investigations in recent years, we started from our general database of about 4000 sampling sites and extended the research with particular humus quality investigations over many hundreds of soil profiles for equivalent humus values. Compared with their humus status expressed in our results in log EH_G values, podzols have the lowest values ( 1.50-1.70 ), brown forest soils are in the medium range ( 1.90-2.50 ) and chernozems have the highest values ( 3.00–3.20 ). The results represent 81.14% of the cultivated area of Hungary. As K values increase as a result of humification, which produces long-chain humic acids, and their C/N values decrease, we express at the same time the polyfunctionality of humic substances, by a general environmental protection capacity, EPC_G=D_xH²K, and a special environmental protection capacity, EPC_s=D_xH²R, where D_x is the thickness of the soil layer in centimeters, H is the humus percentage and R=K/(C/N). This system is suitable for evaluation of the humus status in landscape planning, in land use in the maintenance of soil fertility. Because of the important role of humus in binding toxic elements and xenobiotics, the results are of value for sustainable land use.     

The fate of chlorine in recirculating cooling towers Field results

Chlorine and chloramines are volatile compounds which are stripped (“flashed off”) from recirculating cooling water systems by the large volumes of air which flow through the water in the cooling tower. The fraction of a volatile gas, such as hypochlorous acid (HOCl), which is removed by stripping is determined by Henry's constant H for that gas: H = X_G/X_L, where X_G is the mole fraction of the gas in the air and X_L is the mole fraction of the gas in the water. We have measured H for HOCl, OCl⁻, NH₃, NH₂Cl, NHCl₂ and NCl₃ at 20 and 40°C. We found H = 0.076 for HOCl, compared to 0.71 for NH₃, at 20°C. At 40°C, H was about 2.5-fold larger for HOCl. This means that 10–15% of the HOCl is stripped from cooling water on each passage through a typical cooling tower. The measured flashoff of free available chlorine (HOCl + OCl⁻) was markedly pH-sensitive with a pK of 7.5, exactly as expected if HOCl is volatile but OCl⁻ is not. The data permit a quantitative understanding of the fate of chlorine in cooling systems. The values of H at 40°C for NH₂Cl, NHCl₂ and NCl₃ were 1.28, 3.76 and 1067. This means that all of the chloramines are quickly stripped in a cooling tower.     

Assessment of wastewater pollution in pig leather industry in China

Pig leather industry contributed significantly to the life of people all over the world, but serious water environmental problems have arisen. Investigation in tanneries with green pig hides in China showed that pollution resulted mainly from beamhouse operations. Assessment indicated that wastewater from pig‐hides processing had: (1) wide variations of pH, (2) high levels of sulfide (S^2?) and chromium, (3) high levels of neutral salts and ammonia nitrogen (NH ₄⁺‐N), (4) high levels of suspended solids (TSS) and oil & grease, and (5) low biodegradability. A tannery processing 10 000 pig hides per day generated chemical oxygen demand (COD) of 3.81–12.31 tonnes and NH ₄⁺‐N 0.27–1.06 tonnes, respectively. The pollution loads were equivalent to those of a city of 60 000–120 000 inhabitants, which has a COD of 3.9–10.56 tonnes/day and NH ₄⁺‐N of 0.462–1.164 tonnes/day, respectively (SEPAC). And nearly 30% of the tanneries discharged their wastewater by screening only or by primary treatment like coagulation–sedimentation, while the rest of them discharged directly into surface waters without any treatment.     

Surface runoff estimation over heterogeneous foothills of Aravalli mountain using medium resolution remote sensing rainfall data with soil conservation system‐curve number method: A case of semi‐arid ungauged Manesar Nala watershed

Manesar Nala watershed, having an aerial extent of 71.53 km², was subjected to modelling of its hydrological behaviour for assessing its water resource potential. Modern tools and techniques of Remote Sensing (RS) and Geographic Information System (GIS) were used for assessment of runoff generating potential using the Hydrologic Soil Cover Complex (HSCC) Method [U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)‐Soil Conservation System‐Curve Number (SCS‐CN) approach]. RS and GIS were used in generation and integration of thematic maps [such as Land use/Land cover (using LISS‐III data) and Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG), (using soil map of study area) to derive the Curve Number (CN) for simulating Runoff (R_o)]. The daily rainfall (P) data for the study period 2002–2015 were acquired from NOAA Climate Prediction Center (NCPC). Corresponding R_o from the watershed for intense storm events for 14 years were calculated through RS and GIS. GIS and SCS‐CN model was employed for modelling the runoff production to study its hydrological behaviour. The study showed that the Manesar Nala watershed was having a composite Curve Number – II (CN_II) value of 82.5 for normal conditions. For dry and wet conditions these values were estimated at 66.44 (CN_I) and 91.56 (CN_III), respectively. This investigation showed that Manesar Nala watershed exhibited an annual average (of 14 years, 2002–2015) R_o volume of 4 542 514.37 m³ based on the average annual rainfall (P) of 0.72 m (720 mm). The average annual surface runoff (R_o) was predicted to be approximately 0.21 m with annual runoff coefficient (C_R) of 0.29. During the study, we also found a strong correlation ‘r’ between satellite driven P and R_o from NRCS‐CN method of the order of 0.94. The methodology so developed has the potential to be used in other similar ungauged watersheds in the same agro‐climatic conditions for the purpose of planning of watershed conservation measures and other developmental activities.     

Exploring the effect of air pollution on social activity in China using geotagged social media check-in data

Understanding the complex impact of air pollution is crucial to assessing exposure risk and defining public health policies in China. However, the evidence and hence knowledge of how urban activity responds to air pollution are limited. In this paper, we propose to use geotagged check-in records on Weibo, a Tweeter-like platform, to systematically investigate the effect of air pollution on urban activity.Based on panel models, we found clear evidence that such effect exists and varies between pollutants, visitors and residents, and different activity types. Typically, SO₂ has the largest impact, followed by PM_2.5, NO₂, and PM₁₀; local citizens' activities are more susceptible than visitors; leisure-related activity has a sensitivity at least twofold higher than work-related activities. Additionally, we tested hypotheses about the heterogeneous effect. We confirmed the role of Income and air quality, showing that people who live in richer and more polluted cities are more likely to experience the effects of air pollution. Specifically, people who live in a more polluted city with 100 unit increments in AvgAQI show on average the same sensitivity as those who live in a less polluted city and earn about 20.3 thousand yuan more in average Income.This reveals new insights about environmental injustice in China. By presenting a portrait of the spatial heterogeneity, we argued that environmental injustice in terms of air pollution is not just about the difference in exposure risk measured based on population distribution, rather the measurement should also consider the disparity derived from urban activity. Secondly, new injustice may arise in underdeveloped areas where manufacture industry is transferred to but people barely take avoidance behavior. Finally, the map also reveals the general neglect of the detrimental effect of light air pollution, which we speculate is partly due to China's comparatively low standard in governmental regulations.We believe our finding contributes significantly to exposure risk assessment and environmental justice debates. Hence it highlights the necessity and urgency of public healthy polices that spread the health consequence of air pollution, especially in the underdeveloped region.