Evaluation of crystallographic changes and plastic strain ratio in Al alloys

Over the past several decades, extensive research endeavours in the field of crystal plasticity (CP) have led to the development of various Taylor-type homogenisation models enabling simulation of texture evolution during plastic deformation. This contribution provides a brief summary on the quality of deformation texture modelling under various boundary conditions. The crystallographic evolutionary patterns are discussed on the basis of grain interaction phenomena incorporated in the CP calculations. The annealing textures are successfully simulated by considering strain heterogeneities in the particle affected zone and by employing orientation selection during both nucleation and growth stages of recrystallisation. It is shown that the Lankford value profiles can be accurately reproduced by CP calculations on condition of reliable grain statistics.

This paper is part of a Themed Issue on Aluminium-based materials: processing, microstructure, properties, and recycling.     

无取向硅钢形变储能取向依赖性及其对再结晶织构的影响

采用晶体塑性有限元模拟与实验相结合的方式,研究无取向硅钢冷轧过程中不同初始织构组分的取向流动与形变储能累积。结果表明:冷轧后形成了较强的α,γ形变织构和较弱的λ形变织构。再结晶织构由γ,α,η和λ织构组成,其取向密度依赖于冷轧压下率。随冷轧压下率增大,λ再结晶织构逐渐增强,η织构先增强后减弱,γ织构先减弱后增强,α织构稍有弱化。冷轧过程中形变储能累积具有明显的初始取向依赖性,初始γ取向储能累积速率在低于50%压下率时与初始α取向接近,高于50%压下率时则明显大于后者,初始λ取向储能累积速率始终显著低于γ和α取向,转至同一形变取向的不同初始取向间的储能累积也会产生差异。冷轧过程中不同初始织构组分的取向流动与形变储能累积规律,决定了无取向硅钢再结晶织构组分的发展。     

Mechanism of cube grain nucleation during recrystallization of deformed commercial purity aluminium

Cube texture is a sharp recrystallization texture component infcc metals like aluminium, copper, etc. It is described by an ideal orientation i.e. (100) (100). The subject of cube texture nucleation i.e. cube grain nucleation, from the deformed state of aluminium and copper is of scientific curiosity with concurrent technological implications. There are essentially two models currently in dispute over the mechanism of cube grain nucleation i.e. the differential stored energy model founded on the hypothesis proposed by Ridha and Hutchinson and the micro-growth selection model of Dugganet al. In this paper, calculations are made on the proposal of Ridha and Hutchinson model and the results are obtained in favour of the differential stored energy model. It is also shown that there is no need for the micro-growth model.     

Stored energy in can body aluminium alloy after cold rolling and stress relieving

Abstract

Information on the stored energy after cold deformation and stress relieving would provide a greater understanding of the mechanism that controls the primary recrystallisation in deformed metals. Stored energy as a function of crystal orientation of 88% cold rolled and stress relieved can body aluminium alloy is calculated using the diffraction peaks from X-ray analysis. The obtained stored energy values are presented in the form of a stored energy distribution function on Euler angle space similar to the orientation distribution function. The stored energy along the β fibre that characterises the deformation texture and cube recrystallisation texture components is discussed in detail. A significant reduction of stored energy for the cube texture component after stress relieving is observed.     

Effect of roll pass schedule on through thickness texture development in Al–Mn alloy

Abstract

During hot rolling a texture gradient is developed through the thickness of the slab. This is directly related to the different strain paths experienced by the material between the surface and the centre plane. The difference in strain path not only affects the texture, but can also give differences in stored energy though the thickness, which in turn affects the recrystallisation kinetics and ultimately the recrystallisation texture. The strain path is further complicated when a number of roll passes are involved, since the material is subjected to more complex strain paths. In the current investigation the effects of roll pass schedule (rolling direction, i.e. reverse rolling or continuous rolling) on the texture development during deformation and subsequent annealing have been characterised for an Al-1%Mn alloy. The study has shown that the texture of the surface region of the slabs is dependent on the roll pass schedule. This effect is at a maximum in the near surface region, although the effect of roll pass schedule on the recrystallisation kinetics is at a maximum 20% of the half thickness below the surface of the slabs.     

中间退火及成品退火速率对高压阳极铝箔微观组织的影响

采用不同中间退火温度及成品退火速率对高压阳极铝箔进行处理,并利用EBSD及XRD技术分析其微观组织结构,尤其是织构的变化规律。结果表明,中间退火温度对后续成品退火中形成立方织构起到了关键作用,这可能是由于低温中间退火保留了大量的形变储能,为成品退火时立方织构的形成增加了形核核心。同时,低的中间退火温度造成立方织构较理想位置偏转程度更大。随着成品退火加热速率的增大,铝箔再结晶分数及再结晶晶粒尺寸逐渐减小,这是由于退火加热速率的增大(低于临界加热速率),缩短了晶界迁移的时间,减缓了再结晶的发生。     

Analysis of Micro-texture during Secondary Recrystallization in a Hi-B Electrical Steel

The understanding of Goss texture in Hi-B electrical steels possesses significant industrial and academic value, thus attracts worldwide attention. The prevailing models for sharp Goss texture formation during secondary recrystallization are CSL (coincident site lattice) boundary theory and HE (high energy) boundary theory. These theories stress the key factor of preferred growth and the difference between them only lies in the specific selection manner. This work examined the texture gradient in primarily recrystallized sheet and demonstrated its possible influence on the formation of secondary grains, and then determined the micro- texture during different stages of secondary recrystallization using EBSD (electron back-scattered diffraction) technique, finally analyzed a special type of secondary grains with near Brass orientation, which were detected in the later stage of secondary recrystallization, and discussed its origin and effect in terms of surface energy effect. The results indicate that texture gradient in primarily recrystallized sheet will lead to a multi-stage formation of Goss texture, namely, early stage of secondary grains with various orientations in subsurface region, intermediate stage of preferred growth of Goss grains into center layer and re-grow back to the surface and the final stage of Goss grain growth by swallowing slowly the island grains with the help of H2 atmosphere.     

Micromechanical interaction in two-phase iron–copper polycrystals

The plastic deformation of two-phase iron–copper polycrystals was studied experimentally and modelled in a semi-analytical approach, taking into account work-hardening behaviour, initial texture, slip processes and volume fractions of the phases. Iron–copper polycrystals including the single-phase materials were produced by powder metallurgy in various compositions of iron and copper. The two-phase materials had microstructures ranging between interpenetrating networks and matrix/inclusion type. Samples were deformed by rolling and compression at room temperature. Besides stress vs. strain during compression the texture and the microhardness distribution were measured before and after the deformation. The determined quantities (stress, strain, texture) were compared with model calculations performed with a viscoplastic self-consistent (VPSC) model from R. Lebensohn and C. Tomé. The best predictions of this model were found in the case of copper inclusions in an iron matrix whereas for interpenetrating networks a viscoplastic Taylor model was in better accordance with experiment.     

冷轧形变量对异步轧制高纯铝箔织构的影响

应用取向分布函数(ODF)研究和分析了异步轧制高纯铝箔的形变织构和再结晶织构.结果表明:异步轧制高纯铝箔的形变织构除了C{112}<111>、B{110}<112>和S{123}<634>织构组分外,还有较强的CubeND{001}<110>和{102}织构.异步轧制高纯铝箔的再结晶织构由强的立方织构{001}<100>和弱的R{124}<211>织构组成.随着形变量的增加,异步轧制高纯铝箔的形变织构和再结晶织构呈现规律性的变化,{102}织构减少,S织构先增后减,速比较小时C织构近线性减少,速比较大时C织构则先增后减.异步轧制高纯铝箔的退火样品中有很强的立方织构,这与异步轧制提高高纯铝箔的形变储能有关,形变量过大时,立方织构随形变量的增加急剧减少.{102}织构有利于再结晶立方织构的加强.     

Unravelling the precipitation evolutions of AZ80 magnesium alloy during non-isothermal and isothermal processes

The precipitation evolutions of Mg-Al-Zn alloys play essential roles in their mechanical properties,corro-sion performance,formability,plastic deformation mechanisms and texture development.In the present work,the precipitation evolutions of AZ80 magnesium alloy during both non-isothermal and isothermal processes were unraveled by utilizing in situ electrical resistivity monitoring,hardness testing,differen-tial scanning calorimetry and microstructural characterization.The results showed that discontinuous precipitation(DP)and continuous precipitation(CP)occurred competitively during non-isothermal and isothermal processes.The precipitation of dominant 3-Mgi7Ali2 phase during non-isothermal processes was highly dependent on the thermal history.During isothermal processes,the precipitation behavior of AZ80 magnesium alloy could be considered as the functions of holding temperature and time.At lower temperatures,massive DP and CP were gradually formed to equally strengthen the alloy.At higher tem-peratures,the Ostwald coarsening was characterized in the later stages and indicated to slightly soften the alloy.Isothermal time-temperature-precipitation curves and quantitative precipitate evolution were estimated to unravel precipitation characteristics and their strengthening functions.     

Yield surface simulation for partially recrystallized aluminum polycrystals on the basis of spatially discrete data

The paper presents simulations of the yield surface evolution of plastically deformed aluminum polycrystals during recrystallization. The yield surfaces are calculated using a viscoplastic Taylor–Bishop–Hill strain rate polycrystal homogenization method. The input data for the yield surface calculations are the crystal orientations, their volume fractions, and their shear stresses. While the crystal orientations determine the kinematic portion of the yield surface the threshold shear stress of each individual orientation determines the kinetic portion of the yield surface. The input data for the homogenization calculations are generated through a spatially discrete simulation, where crystal deformation and primary static partial recrystallization are simulated by coupling a viscoplastic crystal plasticity finite element model with a cellular automaton. The crystal plasticity finite element model accounts for crystallographic slip and for crystal rotation during plastic deformation using space and time as independent variables and the crystal orientation and the accumulated slip as dependent variables. The cellular automaton uses a switching rule which is formulated as a probabilistic analogue of Turnbull's rate equation for the motion of grain boundaries. The actual decision about a switching event is made using a simple-sampling Monte Carlo step. The automaton uses space and time as independent variables and the crystal orientation and a stored energy measure as dependent variables. The kinetics produced by the switching algorithm are scaled through grain boundary mobility and driving force data. The crystallographic texture and the orientation-dependent resistance to shear are for each interpolation point extracted after each time step during recrystallization. The data serve as input for the calculation of discrete yield surfaces.     

The development of grain-orientation-dependent residual stressess in a cyclically deformed alloy

There have been numerous efforts to understand and control the resistance of materials to fracture by repeated or cyclic stresses. The micromechanical behaviours, particularly the distributions of stresses on the scale of grain size during or after mechanical or electrical fatigue, are crucial to a full understanding of the damage mechanisms in these materials. Whether a large microstress develops during cyclic deformation with a small amount of monotonic strain but a large amount of accumulated strain remains an open question. Here, we report a neutron diffraction investigation of the development of intergranular stresses, which vary as a function of grain orientations, in 316 stainless steel during high-cycle fatigue. We found that a large intergranular stress developed before cracks started to appear. With further increase of fatigue cycles, the intergranular stress decreased, while the elastic intragranular stored energy continued to grow. One implication of our findings is that the ratio between the intergranular and intragranular stored energies during various stages of fatigue deformation may validate the damage mechanism and can be used as a fingerprint for monitoring the state of fatigue damage in materials.     

Fatigue life improvement and grain growth of gradient nanostructured industrial zirconium during high cycle fatigue

The effect of surface gradient nanostructure on the fatigue life of commercial pure (CP) Zr was inves-tigated.Four point bending fatigue tests indicated that the fatigue limit of CP Zr with surface gradient nanostructure was increased by about 28.3 ％ compared with the original sample (annealed state).The microstructure evolution at different fatigue loading stages was characterized.The high strength of sur-face gradient nanostructure could increase the crack initiation resistance.Furthermore,electron back scattered diffraction (EBSD) analysis demonstrated that the surface nanocrystals grew and rotated grad-ually during the fatigue loading,which was beneficial to reducing stress concentration,inhibit fatigue crack initiation,and prolong crack initiation life.The stored distortion energy of CP Zr calculated before and after fatigue indicated that the stored distortion energy decreased dramatically during cyclic load-ing,which provided the driving force for grain growth.Besides,the growth of nanocrystals consumed the mechanical energy produced by the applied load to a certain extent,thus,slowing down the accumulation of fatigue damage.The coarse grains at the interior could deform plastically and reduce the crack growth rate.In addition,the compressive residual stress caused by USSP treatment reduced the local effective stress and the driving force of crack growth.     

Annealing twin formation and recrystallization study of cold-drawn copper wires from EBSD measurements

The crystallographic texture and microstructure of an electrolytic tough pitch copper have been investigated by Electron Back Scattered Diffraction (EBSD) after cold wire drawing (reduction in area between 52% and 94%) and after primary recrystallization.The material presents a deformation texture composed of major 〈111〉 and minor 〈100〉 fibers. The evolution of the quality index of the Kikuchi patterns shows that the stored energy is lower in the 〈100〉 fiber than in the 〈111〉 fiber. Then, after recrystallization, the volume fraction of the 〈100〉 fiber increases at the expense of the other texture components.The study of the grain boundary nature shows that the recrystallization twin fraction decreases with increasing strain. It is shown that this evolution is the consequence of the grain size reduction.     

Texture and microstructure development during hot deformation of ME20 magnesium alloy: Experiments and simulations

The influence of deformation conditions and starting texture on the microstructure and texture evolution during hot deformation of a commercial rare earth (RE)-containing magnesium alloy sheet ME20 was investigated and compared with a conventional Mg sheet alloy AZ31. For all the investigated conditions, the two alloys revealed obvious distinctions in the flow behavior and the development of texture and microstructure, which was primarily attributed to the different chemistry of the two alloys. The presence of precipitates in the fine microstructure of the ME20 sheet considerably increased the recrystallization temperature and suppressed tensile twinning. This gave rise to an uncommon Mg texture development during deformation. Texture simulation using an advanced cluster-type Taylor approach with consideration of grain interaction was employed to correlate the unique texture development in the ME20 alloy with the activation scenarios of different deformation modes.     

Recrystallisation textures in cold rolled low carbon steel containing ferritic and bainitic microstructures

Abstract

Low carbon steel strip was heat treated to generate four different starting microstructures (fine and coarse polygonal ferrite, acicular ferrite and bainite) for investigating their influence on texture development during cold rolling and annealing. The starting materials were cold rolled to 50–90% reduction and annealed for various times in the temperature range 853–953 K. The resultant microstructures and textures were examined mainly by electron backscatter diffraction and X-ray diffraction. The initial microstructure strongly influenced the crystallographic rotation paths during cold rolling, whereby high strain deformation generated strong {223}〈110〉 texture components in the polygonal ferritic microstructures, whereas a strong {001}〈110〉 texture was produced in the acicular/bainitic microstructures. Subsequent annealing generated, to varying degrees, the classic {111}〈uvw〉 (γ-fibre) recrystallisation texture in all materials. Unexpectedly, coarse polygonal ferrite produced the strongest γ-fibre recrystallisation texture after 70–90% cold rolling reduction. Based on arguments involving the effect of carbon in solution, initial grain size and deformation textures on recrystallisation texture development, it was shown that a strong γ-fibre texture can indeed be generated in coarse polygonal ferrite.     

The effect of SiC nanoparticles on deformation texture of ARB-processed steel-based nanocomposite

In this study, the influence of SiC nanoparticles on deformation texture of steel-based nanocomposite fabricated by accumulative roll bonding process was investigated. It was found that there was a texture transition from the rolling texture to the shear texture for both pure interstitial free steel and steel-based nanocomposite. However, the texture transition occurred in different cycles for the pure steel (the third cycle) and steel-based nanocomposite (the first cycle). It was realized that the fraction of low misorientation angle grain boundaries was decreased and the fraction of high misorientation angle grain boundaries was increased by the number of cycles. Also, recrystallization occurred in the pure steel and steel-based nanocomposite samples after the third and first cycles, respectively. In addition, the occurrence of recrystallization in steel-based nanocomposite was sooner than that of pure steel. At the early stage of dynamic recrystallization in processed steels, the {011}< 100 >-oriented grains were evolved and the fraction of grains with α-fiber and γ-fiber orientations was slightly decreased. The formation of the rolling texture in the steel-based nanocomposite samples was different from the typical rolling texture for the pure steel samples, due to the presence of the SiC nanoparticles in the nanocomposite. The weak rolling texture was attributed to the high stored energy of deformation, which was, in turn, due to low deformation temperature.     

A New Variant Selection Criterion for Twin Variants in Titanium Alloys (Part 2)

A new selection criterion to explain the activation of the twinning variant is proposed. This criterion is based on the calculation of the deformation energy to create a primary twin. The calculation takes into account the effect of the grain size using a Hall–Petch type relation. This criterion allows to obtain a very good prediction for the twin family selection and twin variant selection. The calculations are compared with the experimental results obtained on T40 (ASTM grade 2) deformed by Channel Die compression.     

低碳钢形变强化相变时铁素体织构类型的分析

利用背散射电子衍射取向成像技术分析了在热模拟单向压缩条件下Q235碳素钢形变强化相变时铁素体织构的类型。结果表明,在利用形变强化相变实现铁素体的超细化过程中会出现铁素体的相交织构和形变织构,在大应变条件下还会出现动态再结晶织构。在形变强化相变后细晶铁素体在整体上表现为以〈111〉方向为主的线织构。主要的相交织构在粗晶奥氏体内部形变带形核时产生并与〈111〉织构对应。形变织构是在形变时形成的铁素体受到继续变形所致,在形变强化相变过程中及完成后都会产生,对应〈111〉及〈100〉方向的线织构,随着形变的加大,〈100〉方向的织构增加得更快,形变温度的降低有利于形变织构的加强。在形变量很大且形变温度比较合适时(但不能过低)会发生铁素体的动态再结晶,它以连续的方式进行,导致形变织构的进一步加强,并使晶粒均匀细化。