Hydrogen flow chart in China

In this paper, the life cycle of hydrogen, flowing from production to consumption in China is described. Chinese industry and statistics data are used to calculate the total and segmental hydrogen production and consumption, and the by-product hydrogen are estimated. In 2007, about 12.42 million tons hydrogen was generated on-site, in which, 57.3%, 23.0% and 19.7% were produced by coal, natural gas and oil respectively. Hydrogen is mainly consumed by the following manufacturing processes: ammonia, methanol and oil refining, and the corresponding percentages are 75.8%, 10.5% and 13.7%. There are about 5.3 million tons and 0.42 million tons of by-product hydrogen produced during the carbonization process and the sodium hydroxide producing respectively. The by-product hydrogen is collected and utilized in vehicles to fuel hydrogen fuel cells or internal combustion engine technologies. Therefore, it could replace about 16 million tons of gasoline or fuel 17.7 million hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.     

A market potential and economical aspects of a future hydrogen supply for the F.R.G.

Based on a scenario for energetic and non-energetic demand in the F.R.G. up to the year 2030, we calculated potentials for non-fossil-made hydrogen to substitute or support hydrocarbons such as oil products and natural gas. The potential demand of hydrogen as a raw material was found to be about 20 MTCE in 2030. The market would be in chemistry, fuel production and iron and steel industry. The potential for hydrogen as an energy carrier is roughly three times higher. An investigation of the growth of utility capacity showed that after the year 1995 nuclear plants could also be introduced for medium load electricity production. The use of these plants for off-peak electrolysis would give rise to hydrogen production sufficient to cover the potential demand of hydrogen as a raw material. This off-peak hydrogen can be produced economically compared to natural gas even at today's level of energy costs. With a real increase of prices for imported hydrocarbons in the order of 1–3%/y, other nuclear technologies for additional hydrogen production (for example thermochemical processes) might reach an economical breakeven point at the beginning of the next century. Installation of nuclear power for this purpose could supply the energy market with 20 MTCE of hydrogen in 2030. This hydrogen could be mixed with the natural gas and transported in the network already existing for gas distribution with only moderate modifications on network and burners.     

Current situation and development prospects of metallurgical by-product gas utilization in China's steel industry

China's annual metallurgical by-product gas production exceeds 1400 billion Nm³, the calorific equivalent of ∼266 million tonnes of coal. The widely-studied blast furnace gas used in hydrogen-enriched carbonic oxide recycling oxygenate furnaces ensures carbon-reduction. Converter gas contains abundant heat resources, equivalent to ∼6.5 million tonnes of coal. Using high-temperature by-product gas online reforming methods to convert thermal energy into chemical energy and combining it with power generation and other industries imparts physical heat recovery exceeding 60%. China's annual coke oven gas (COG) production could support more than 100 million tonnes of direct reduced iron production, thus reducing CO₂ emissions by more than 150 million tonnes (nearly 10% of China's steel industry CO₂ emissions). We summarise the characteristics, availability, and steel-chemical co-production utilisation of three by-product gases, and discuss the application of COG in direct reduced iron production and development of metallurgical by-product gas utilisation for carbon reduction in China.     

The production and application of hydrogen in steel industry

Due to the increasingly serious environmental issues and continuous depletion of fossil resources, the steel industry is facing unprecedented pressure to reduce CO₂ emissions and achieve the sustainable energy development. Hydrogen is considered as the most promising clean energy in the 21st century due to the diverse sources, high calorific value, good thermal conductivity and high reaction rate, making hydrogen have great potential to apply in the steel industry. In this review, different hydrogen production technologies which have potential to provide hydrogen or hydrogen-rich gas for the great demand of steel plants are described. The applications of hydrogen in the blast furnace (BF) production process, direct reduction iron (DRI) process and smelting reduction iron process are summarized. Furthermore, the functions of hydrogen or hydrogen-rich gas as fuels are also discussed. In addition, some suggestions and outlooks are provided for future development of steel industry in China.     

The case study of furnace use and energy conservation in iron and steel industry

This work was performed on-site energy audits of 118 firms in the Taiwanese iron and steel industry during 2000–2008. It was found that the total potential energy savings was estimated about 79,160.8 KL of crude oil equivalent (KLOE). It was identified to generate potential electricity savings of 170,322.8 MWH, fuel oil savings of 22,235.1 kL, steam coal savings of 4922 tons, and natural gas (NG) savings of 10,735 kilo cubic meters. It was represented a total reduction of 217,866.5 tons in carbon dioxide emissions, equivalent to the annual carbon dioxide absorption capacity of a 5836 ha plantation forest. This study has established a national database presenting information and energy saving methods for energy users and has identified the potential areas for making energy savings to provide a energy conservation reference. It can assist the energy users in performing energy audits and increasing energy utilization efficiency.     

The energy benefit of stainless steel recycling

The energy used to produce austenitic stainless steel was quantified throughout its entire life cycle for three scenarios: (1) current global operations, (2) 100% recycling, and (3) use of only virgin materials. Data are representative of global average operations in the early 2000s. The primary energy requirements to produce 1 metric ton of austenitic stainless steel (with assumed metals concentrations of 18% Cr, 8% Ni, and 74% Fe) is (1) 53 GJ, (2) 26 GJ, and (3) 79 GJ for each scenario, with CO₂ releases totaling (1) 3.6 metric tons CO₂, (2) 1.6 metric tons CO₂, and (3) 5.3 metric tons CO₂. Thus, the production of 17 million metric tons of austenitic stainless steel in 2004 used approximately 9.0×10¹⁷ J of primary energy and released 61 million metric tons of CO₂. Current recycling operations reduce energy use by 33% (4.4×10¹⁷ J) and CO₂ emissions by 32% (29 million tons). If austenitic stainless steel were to be produced solely from scrap, which is currently not possible on a global level due to limited availability, energy use would be 67% less than virgin-based production and CO₂ emissions would be cut by 70%. The calculation of the total energy is most sensitive to the amount and type of scrap fed into the electric arc furnace, the unit energy of the electric arc furnace, the unit energy of ferrochromium production, and the form of primary nickel.     

Assessment of CO2 emissions and its reduction potential in the Korean petroleum refining industry using energy-environment models

We assessed potential future CO₂ reduction in the Korean petroleum refining industry by investigating five new technologies for energy savings and CO₂ mitigation using a hybrid SD-LEAP model: crude oil distillation units (CDU), vacuum distillation units (VDU), light gas-oil hydro-desulfurization units (LGO HDS), and the vacuum residue hydro-desulfurization (VR HDS) process. The current and future demand for refining industry products in Korea was estimated using the SD model. The required crude oil input amounts are expected to increase from 139 million tons in 2008 to 154 million tons in 2030 in the baseline scenario. The current and future productivity of the petroleum refining industry was predicted, and this prediction was substituted into the LEAP model which analyzed energy consumption and CO₂ emissions from the refining processes in the BAU scenario. We expect that new technology and alternative scenarios will reduce CO₂ emissions by 0.048% and 0.065% in the national and industrial sectors, respectively.     

不同碳达峰时点选择下的投资结构变化和经济社会影响——以广东省为例

中国提出2030年前碳达峰、2060年前碳中和的目标将对全社会经济发展、能源消费带来深刻的变革。通过构建广东省气候-经济-环境-健康综合评估模型(ICEEH-GD),设计了如期达峰(2030年达峰)和率先达峰(2025年达峰)两个情景,研究不同碳达峰时点下的投资结构变化和经济社会影响。结果表明,率先达峰情景促进全社会投资从电力、水泥、油品开采、焦炭、钢铁等低增加值高碳排放部门转向服务业、电子信息、机械制造、建筑业、化工业等高增加值低碳排放部门,投资量总计转移了819亿元,带动相关部门的增加值增长135亿元。率先达峰情景强化对电力、水泥、钢铁、陶瓷等高碳排放行业的限制,在2030年全社会就业岗位比如期达峰情景增加82000人,但全省国内生产总值(GDP)比如期达峰情景减少424亿元,占届时全省GDP总量的0.242%。到2030年,率先达峰情景比如期达峰情景降低CO₂排放7 610万t和节约能源消费2 535万t标准煤,其中碳减排和节能贡献部门主要来自电力、水泥、钢铁、石油开采、陶瓷行业,分别占全社会碳减排量和节能量的65.0%和74.3%。从投资与增加值、就业、碳...     

Fuel saving, carbon dioxide emission avoidance, and syngas production by tri-reforming of flue gases from coal- and gas-fired power stations, and by the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide

Flue gases from coal, gas, or oil-fired power stations, as well as from several heavy industries, such as the production of iron, lime and cement, are major anthropogenic sources of global CO₂ emissions. The newly proposed process for syngas production based on the tri-reforming of such flue gases with natural gas could be an important route for CO₂ emission avoidance. In addition, by combining the carbothermic reduction of iron oxide with the partial oxidation of the carbon source, an overall thermoneutral process can be designed for the co-production of iron and syngas rich in CO. Water-gas shift (WGS) of CO to H₂ enables the production of useful syngas. The reaction process heat, or the conditions for thermoneutrality, are derived by thermochemical equilibrium calculations. The thermodynamic constraints are determined for the production of syngas suitable for methanol, hydrogen, or ammonia synthesis. The environmental and economic consequences are assessed for large-scale commercial production of these chemical commodities. Preliminary evaluations with natural gas, coke, or coal as carbon source indicate that such combined processes should be economically competitive, as well as promising significant fuel saving and CO₂ emission avoidance. The production of ammonia in the above processes seems particularly attractive, as it consumes the nitrogen in the flue gases.     

Integration of a hydrogen economy into the German energy system: an optimising modelling approach

Possible limitations of the oil supply are increasingly triggering the search for alternative fuels, especially hydrogen. This paper describes a novel modelling approach developed to assess the geographic and temporal set-up of an infrastructure for a hydrogen-based transport system in Germany till 2030 and to analyse the effects on the national energy system. The results show that the fossil hydrogen production dominates while the infrastructure is being developed and that the mix between gas and coal is highly sensitive to the price ratios. Even in this case, a remarkable CO₂ reduction is achievable. In the first decade, decentralised plants play an important role, but also industrial by-product hydrogen. The introduction of hydrogen in areas with high population density minimises infrastructure costs. Liquefied hydrogen is economic with large plants and dispersed hydrogen demand. In the long run, co-production of electricity and hydrogen in IGCC plants (with CCS) is a promising option, particularly under restrictive CO₂ regimes     

Nuclear production of hydrogen development in the Federal Republic of Germany

For a long time hydrogen has been used in industry and today is mainly produced from hydrocarbons. Hydrogen is used in the gas supply, chemical industry, oil industry and in the metallurgical industry. Hydrogen obtained from nuclear energy can contribute to the future energy supply as well as take over functions which today are filled by natural gas and mineral oil.Based on these properties, and under the assumption of economical production, hydrogen can attain a wide spectrum of uses, especially as an energy carrier for heat supply in industry, and for household and private consumption; as a raw material for the chemical industry, for the synthesis of hydrocarbons and for the production of ammonia; as hydrogen in the oil industry and for coal reprocessing; as a reducing agent in the metallurgical industry (especially in the steel industry); and as a fuel for transportation (mainly for aircraft). The actual methods for production of hydrogen and the methods for the refinement of coal make linking with nuclear energy possible by the allocation of the process energies necessary for the process of conversion. These are mainly process steam and process heat.A further possibility for the production of hydrogen is the thermochemical process. In this process the feeds are water and nuclear energy, the products are hydrogen and oxygen. The nuclear energy is used in the form of high-temperature heat, for example from high-temperature reactors. The process is comprised of a series of chemical reactions, which represent in total the reaction of water splitting.     

Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions: A Global Perspective

Energy sources will play an important role in the world's future. Recently, environmental problems resulting from energy production, conversion, and utilization have caused increased public awareness in all sectors of the public, industry, and government in both developed and developing countries. States have played a leading role in protecting the environment by reducing emissions of greenhouse gases. State emissions are significant on a global scale. Emissions of CO₂ caused by human activity are generally considered the most important. Total world CO₂ emissions from the consumption of petroleum, natural gas, and coal, and the flaring of natural gas increased from 5,892 million metric tons of carbon equivalent in 1992 to 6,568 million metric tons in 2001.     

Development of an inter-process linkage technology for fluoro-nitric acid washing-agent and its LCA evaluation

Fluoro-nitric acid used in the semiconductor industry as a washing agent is of high purity and high concentration (fluoric acid: 23.3%, nitric acid: 16.6%). It is recovered using separation and control in the semiconductor industry. A technology for utilizing this acid byproduct as a pickling solution for stainless steel sheets in the steel industry was developed. The results of a Life-Cycle Assessment study showed that a cascade of 10 tons of acid byproducts reduces energy consumption by 4.0 tons in crude oil conversion value, CO₂ emissions by 4.3 tons, and sludge generation by 24.8 tons.     

The economic costs of reducing greenhouse gas emissions under a U.S. national renewable electricity mandate

The electricity sector is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs) in the U.S. Many states have passed and Congress has considered Renewable Portfolio Standards (RPS), mandates that specific percentages of electricity be generated from renewable resources. We perform a technical and economic assessment and estimate the economic costs and net GHG reductions from a national 25 percent RPS by 2025 relative to coal-based electricity. This policy would reduce GHG emissions by about 670 million metric tons per year, 11 percent of 2008 U.S. emissions. The first 100 million metric tons could be abated for less than $36/metric ton. However, marginal costs climb to $50 for 300 million metric tons and to as much as $70/metric ton to fulfill the RPS. The total economic costs of such a policy are about $35 billion annually. We also examine the cost sensitivity to favorable and unfavorable technology development assumptions. We find that a 25 percent RPS would likely be an economically efficient method for utilities to substantially reduce GHG emissions only under the favorable scenario. These estimates can be compared with other approaches, including increased R&D funding for renewables or deployment of efficiency and/or other low-carbon generation technologies.     

2020年我国钢铁行业CO_2排放趋势和减排路径分析

我国钢铁行业CO_2排放占全国排放总量的近20%,分析钢铁行业的CO_2排放趋势和减排路径对我国控制温室气体排放有着重要的现实意义。本文从影响钢铁行业排放的主要影响因素着手,分析了钢铁产量和工序能耗的现状及未来发展趋势,测算了2010～2020年钢铁行业排放趋势和减排潜力,同时给出了减排途径和各种减排措施的贡献度,并提出了相关政策建议。     

Options for the Swedish steel industry - Energy efficiency measures and fuel conversion

The processes of iron and steel making are energy intensive and consume large quantities of electricity and fossil fuels. In order to meet future climate targets and energy prices, the iron and steel industry has to improve its energy and resource efficiency. For the iron and steel industry to utilize its energy resources more efficiently and at the same time reduce its CO₂ emissions a number of options are available. In this paper, opportunities for both integrated and scrap-based steel plants are presented and some of the options are electricity production, fuel conversion, methane reforming of coke oven gas and partnership in industrial symbiosis. The options are evaluated from a system perspective and more specific measures are reported for two Swedish case companies: SSAB Strip Products and Sandvik AB. The survey shows that both case companies have great potentials to reduce their CO₂ emissions.     

Development of European hydrogen infrastructure scenarios—CO2 reduction potential and infrastructure investment

For the introduction of a hydrogen economy one of the most relevant questions is: what are the suitable feedstocks and production technologies for hydrogen, which is a secondary energy carrier, taking into account the manifold objectives of hydrogen introduction: the cost-effective substitution of oil, increasing the security of energy supply, and reducing CO₂ and other emissions? This study focuses on constructing a hydrogen infrastructure in Europe by 2030. Several hydrogen technologies and their integration into an infrastructure system, including the production, transport and distribution of hydrogen, are analysed on the basis of energy chain calculations and expert judgements and consistent scenarios are developed. It can be shown that under economic and CO₂-reduction objectives, the steam reforming of gas, followed by coal gasification and, to a limited extent, the electrolysis of electricity from renewable energy carriers are the most promising hydrogen production options in this first phase for developing a hydrogen infrastructure. These options result in a significant level of CO₂-reduction. However, the total cost of the infrastructure will account for 0.3% of EU-25 GDP in 2030. This shows the extent of the challenge involved in constructing a hydrogen infrastructure.     

Environmental impact categories of hydrogen and ammonia driven transoceanic maritime vehicles: A comparative evaluation

In this study, carbon-free fuels -ammonia and hydrogen-are proposed to replace heavy fuel oils in the engines of maritime transportation vehicles. Also, it is proposed to use hydrogen and ammonia as dual fuels to quantify the reduction potential of greenhouse gas emissions. An environmental impact assessment of transoceanic tanker and transoceanic freight ship is implemented to explore the impacts of fuel substituting on the environment. In the life cycle analyses, the complete transport life cycle is taken into account from manufacture of transoceanic freight ship and tanker to production, transportation and utilization of hydrogen and ammonia in the maritime vehicles. Several hydrogen and ammonia production routes ranging from municipal waste to geothermal options are considered to comparatively evaluate environmentally benign methods. Besides global warming potential, environmental impact categories of marine sediment ecotoxicity and marine aquatic ecotoxicity are also selected in order to examine the diverse effects on marine environment. Being carbon-neutral fuels, ammonia and hydrogen, yield significantly minor global warming impacts during operation. The ecotoxicity impacts on maritime environment vary based on the production route of hydrogen and ammonia. The results imply that even hydrogen and ammonia are utilized as dual fuels in the engines, the global warming potential is quite lower in comparison with heavy fuel oil driven transoceanic tankers. Geothermal energy sourced hydrogen and ammonia fuelled transoceanic tankers release about 0.98 g and 1.65 g CO₂ eq. per tonne-kilometer, respectively whereas current conventional heavy fuel oil tanker releases about 5.33 g/tonne-kilometer CO₂ eq. greenhouse gas emissions.     

A comprehensive review on synthesis,chemical kinetics,and practical application of ammonia as future fuel for combustion

Recently, ammonia has been explored as a potential fuel for internal combustion engines, gas turbines and other industrial purposes. Ammonia consists of 17.6% by weight of hydrogen and is thus considered a carbon-free emission fuel. The synthesis of ammonia for bulk production takes place using the Haber-Bosch process. The production, storage and transportation of ammonia is relatively safe. This paper reports various aspects of ammonia as an alternative fuel for combustors. Several studies reporting the laminar burning velocity of ammonia and its blends are discussed. Recent advances in the development of chemical kinetics for ammonia combustion are presented. The paper explores all experimental and numerical works on ammonia as a fuel for I C engines, gas turbines and other combustion systems.This review further suggests ways to overcome the disadvantages associated with ammonia combustion, such as lower burning velocities and high NOx emissions.     

Scenario analysis on CO2 emissions reduction potential in China's iron and steel industry

The international climate community has begun to assess a range of possible options for strengthening the international climate change effort after 2012. Analysis of the potential for sector-based emissions reduction and relevant mitigation options will provide the necessary background information for the debate. In order to assess the CO₂ abatement potential of China's steel industry, a model was developed using LEAP software to generate 3 different CO₂ emission scenarios for the industry from 2000 to 2030. The abatement potentials of different scenarios were compared, and their respective feasibilities were assessed according to the cost information. High priority abatement measures were then identified. The results show that the average CO₂ abatement per year in the Recent Policy scenario and in the New Policy scenario, compared with the reference scenario, are 51 and 107 million tons, respectively. The corresponding total incremental costs are 9.34 and 80.95 billion dollars. It is concluded that there is great potential for CO₂ abatement in China's steel industry. Adjusting the structure of the industry and technological advancement will play an important role in emissions reduction. Successful implementation of current sustainable development policies and measures will result in CO₂ abatement at a low cost. However, to achieve higher levels of abatement, the cost will increase dramatically. In the near future, specific energy conservation technologies such as dry coke quenching, exhaust gas and heat recovery equipment will be of great significance. However, taking a long term perspective, emissions reduction will rely more on the adjustment of production processes and the application of more modern large scale plants. Advanced blast furnace technology will inevitably play an important role.