Females' attitude and preference for beer: a conjoint analysis study

In order to sustain the fast‐expanding beer industry, companies need to attract new female consumers. The main objective of this study was to identify the extrinsic and intrinsic attributes that drive female consumers' purchase of beer. A literature review and focus group (n = 6) were conducted, and six attributes were identified as purchase drivers of beer. These attributes included flavour, appearance (colour), packaging, brand, production methods and beer style. These attributes were used to design a choice‐based conjoint analysis survey. The survey was administered to 277 females (aged 35.09 ± 15.2) residing in Nova Scotia (Canada). The results indicated that sweetness has a positive effect on liking. Bitterness has a strong negative effect on liking of beer. Black colour, stouts and macro‐brewed beers also had negative effects on liking of beer products. The consumer clusters showed that generally all of the consumer groups liked sweet beers with low bitterness.     

Modification of perceived beer bitterness intensity,character and temporal profile by hop aroma extract

The effect of hop aroma on perceived bitterness intensity, character and temporal profile of beer was investigated. A hop aroma extract was added at 3 levels (0, 245, 490 mg/L) to beers at low, medium and high bitterness. Beers were evaluated for perceived bitterness intensity, harshness, roundedness and linger by a trained panel using a rank-rating technique at each bitterness level, with and without nose clips. The use of nose clips enabled the olfactory aspect to be decoupled from taste and mouthfeel aspects of bitterness perception. Results showed significant modification of perceived bitterness in beer by hop aroma depending on the inherent level of bitterness. These modifications were mainly driven by olfaction – in an example of taste-aroma interactions, as well as certain tactile sensations elicited by the hop aroma extract in the oral cavity. At low bitterness, beers with hop aroma added were perceived as more bitter, and of ‘rounded’ bitterness character relative to those without hop aroma. When judges used nose clips, this effect was completely eliminated but the sample was perceived to have a ‘harsh’ bitterness character. Conversely, at high bitterness, even when nose clips were used, judges still perceived beers containing hop aroma to be more bitter. These increases in bitterness perception with nose clips indicates the stimulating of other receptors, e.g. trigeminal receptors by hop aroma extract, which in tandem with the high bitterness, cause perceptual interactions enhancing bitterness intensity and also affecting bitterness character. Bitterness character attributes such as ‘round’ and ‘harsh’ were found to significantly depend on bitterness and aroma levels, with the second level of aroma addition (245 mg/L) giving a ‘rounded’ bitterness in low bitterness beers but ‘harsh’ bitterness in high bitterness beers. The impact of aroma on temporal bitterness was also confirmed with time-intensity measurements, and found to be mostly significant at the highest level of hop aroma addition (490 mg/L) in low bitterness beers. These findings represent a significant step forward in terms of understanding bitterness flavour perception and the wider impact of hop compounds on sensory perception.     

Analytical‐Sensory Determination of Potential Flavour Deficiencies of Light Beers

Although currently light beers have a high market share in the US, this beer style is still not accepted on the European continent because light beers are considered watery, mainly on account of lack of mouthfeel. In this paper, the flavour quality, including flavour stability, of five commercial light beers was evaluated in comparison with their corresponding pilsner beers derived from the same breweries. Through detailed physico‐chemical and sensory evaluation, followed by multivariate data analysis, the fresh beers could be differentiated according to their origin (US or European) and beer style (light or pilsner). Potential flavour deficiencies of fresh light beers were determined as too much sweetness, lack of bitterness, and especially reduced fullness. As a result, the fresh light beers were less preferred than their corresponding pilsner. Upon ageing, the light beers were generally less flavour stable than their pilsner counterparts. This is mainly ascribed to increased sensory perception of cardboard and ribes staling flavours in most aged light beers. Nevertheless, based on detailed analytical/sensory investigation, it was clearly demonstrated that one of the light beers involved in this study showed enhanced flavour stability with respect to all other beers, including the pilsner beers.     

Perception of Beer Flavour Associates with Thermal Taster Status

Beer flavour, and thus much of the consumer experience of beer, is determined by the sensations elicited when it is taken into the mouth. Thus, individual differences in the perception of these oral sensations may contribute to the variation in consumer behaviour. A new taste phenotype shown to associate with the intensity of oral sensations elicited by simple solutions is thermal taster status (TTS). Thermal tasters (TTs) perceive ‘phantom’ tastes with thermal stimulation of the tongue, while thermal non‐tasters (TnTs) do not. Here, we investigate the effect of TTS on the perceived intensity of bitterness, sourness, sweetness, fullness, carbonation and overall flavour intensity elicited by seven beers representing classic styles — wheat beer, brown ale, pale ale, low‐alcohol lager, standard lager, high‐alcohol lager and stout. A strong trend was observed for TTs (n = 20) to rate attributes higher than TnTs (n = 20) for all beers except the stout, with these differences significant in many instances (ANOVA or binomial analysis). It is concluded that TTS may be an important determinant of individual differences in the perception of beer flavour, but beer liking and preference are more complex phenomena than can be accounted for by this phenotype alone.     

The role of product familiarity and consumer involvement on liking and perceptions of fresh meat

The objective of this work was to compare consumer’s liking and perception of meat quality attributes as a function of their familiarity and involvement with fresh meat.Ninety-three meat consumers were classified on the basis of their familiarity with fresh meats. Socio-demographic differences between the clusters were found to relate to gender and age, and high familiarity (HF) consumers showed higher involvement with meat. HF consumers enjoyed consuming meat, and they associated a symbolic value to it. In addition, their liking ratings were higher than those of low familiarity (LF) consumers for both appearance and taste of three specific types of fresh meat over the course of product shelf-life. The perceived risks associated with meat consumption and product choice were similar between groups. Both consumer segments reported that the most important driver of fresh meat purchase is its appearance, while the role of extrinsic cues differed among the groups. The HF group needed more information when choosing meat. Regardless of familiarity level, liking was consistent with beef appearance as affected by storage, but the prediction of experienced sensory quality lacked consistency when the perceived intrinsic cue variation was not associated with meat freshness.     

Does it burn? The effect of guar gum addition on ginger beer's sensory properties

Consumer demand for ginger beer has grown within the last few years due to health benefits associated with ginger consumption identified in recent studies and its low-calorie content. However, non-alcoholic ginger beer, like other non-alcoholic beverages, does not possess the same mouthfeel as its alcoholic counterparts. As such, the aim of this study was to evaluate how the addition of guar gum impacted the sensory perception, spiciness, and consumer acceptability of non-alcoholic ginger beer. Two different formulations of ginger beer were created, one without the addition of guar gum (control) and the other with 1.9 g/L guar gum added. Samples, along with carbonated water, were presented in pairs with a 20-s wait and no-rinse in between to observe sensitisation and desensitisation. The participants (n = 103) evaluated each sample for spiciness, burning or stinging sensation, along with bitterness, sweetness, sourness, overall flavour intensity, liking of flavour and mouthfeel, and overall liking. The addition of guar gum significantly impacted the perception of spiciness, burning, and stinging sensation in addition to the overall flavour intensity. The guar gum addition also negatively impacted the acceptability of the ginger beer.     

Supplementing hedonic and sensory consumer research on beer with cognitive and emotional measures,and additional insights via consumer segmentation

A consumer-based multivariate approach to the study of eight commercial beers (mass-produced, speciality and craft) was undertaken in New Zealand with ∼200 people. The beers spanned a wide range of sensory characteristics, from traditional lager and ale styles to high flavour impact beers with novel flavours (e.g. liquorice and rosemary) and less common styles (weisse and gose). These flavour differences were a larger driver of consumers’ hedonic/emotional/cognitive responses than alcohol content, which ranged from 0.5 to 7.2% alcohol by volume (ABV). The supplementation of hedonic and perceptual measures with emotional and cognitive variables resulted in a more detailed differentiation of products, which was further enhanced by consumer segmentation. In the rapidly evolving beer market, there is significant value in product-focused consumer research that delivers insights “beyond liking” and provide a deeper level of understanding about consumers’ product experiences. The research also contributed methodologically to the multivariate approach by considering pros and cons of study implementation aspects such as free-listing and ballot length. This will benefit future researchers in study planning and execution.     

Personality traits and bitterness perception influence the liking and intake of pale ale style beers

Bitterness is classically considered undesirable in foods and beverages. Yet, widespread commercial success of beers (like Bitters in the UK or IPAs in the US) indicate bitterness is desirable for some consumers. Here, we tested whether personality traits influence beer liking and intake. Under laboratory conditions, beer consumers (n = 109) rated liking and intensity of 2 pale ales and a lager, and intensity of two bitter solutions (quinine, Tetralone®). Participants also completed intake and personality questionnaires (Sensation Seeking, Sensitivity to Punishment and Reward, and Food Involvement). A liking ratio for each beer was calculated from each participant’s liking for that specific beer and their total liking for all beers. Participants were classified as weekly, monthly, or yearly pale ale consumers using intake data. Using intensity ratings, personality measures, and other parameters, hierarchical linear regression was used to predict liking ratios, and logistic regression was used to predict beer intake frequency. A significant interaction between Sensation Seeking and quinine bitterness (p = 0.03) was found for the liking ratio of a pale ale. The interaction revealed liking of the pale ale increased with Sensation Seeking but only if quinine bitterness was also high. Intake models showed increased odds of frequent pale ale intake with greater quinine bitterness and lower liking for lager beer. These data suggest liking and intake of pale ales is positively related to Sensation Seeking and bitter taste perception. Contrary to findings in other bitter foods and beverages, the high bitterness found in pale ales may be desirable for some consumers.     

Optimisation of the partial napping approach for the successful capturing of mouthfeel differentiation between brandy products

Partial napping has been validated as a suitable sensory profiling method for brandy evaluation. However, it was found that, compared to conventional profiling, very little useful information could be extracted on brandy mouthfeel when it was evaluated as part of overall in-mouth perceptions. This study aimed to optimise the partial napping method to improve information output on the mouthfeel of brandies. Panellists’ proficiency in visual, aroma and in-mouth evaluation of brandies were scrutinised after which three partial napping protocols were tested to identify the most effective solution for the successful capturing of mouthfeel differences between brandies. The results showed that panellists were equally efficient in aroma and in-mouth evaluations, but that in-mouth perception (defined as retronasal flavour, basic taste and mouthfeel) was not a useful construct as it did not contribute to the product configuration that could be obtained with visual and colour assessments alone. Instructing panellists to ignore retronasal flavour delivered more useful results. Using dark glasses and nose-clips to eliminate visual, aroma and retronasal flavour perceptions were not necessary to obtain a reliable and interpretable representation of the mouthfeel differences between brandies. Clear glasses and written instructions were sufficient to generate useful mouthfeel information under conditions more representative of the consumer product experience.     

Dark vs. light drinks: The influence of visual appearance on the consumer’s experience of beer

We report evidence concerning how the visual appearance of a drink (dark vs. light pale/amber beer) can influence the consumer’s tasting experience. Two experiments were designed to study the effect of visual appearance on people’s hedonic and sensory judgments of beer. Importantly, the beers were indistinguishable in terms of their flavor when tasted in the absence of visual cues.Participants rated the same beer (pale or dark, depending in which group they were assigned) under blind conditions as having more body than when tasted under sighted condition (regardless of whether it was pale or dark; see Experiment 1).When the participants evaluated the expectations and tasting experience of the two different beers under sighted conditions (pale vs. dark), after tasting, those who preferred pale beers, rated the darker beer as tasting sweeter than those who usually prefer other types of beers, such as dark ones (see Experiment 2). Prior tasting, when asked which beer they thought was the most expensive, the majority of the participants chose the darker beer. Furthermore, after tasting both beers, participants reported being willing to pay up to 6% more on average for the darker beer as compared to the pale one.     

The multisensory perception of hop essential oil: a review

Hops are a key ingredient to add bitterness, aroma and flavour to beer, one of the most consumed beverages worldwide. Essential oils from different hop varieties are characterised by similar classes of chemical compounds and complexity, but their contribution to sensory characteristics in beer differs considerably. Volatiles in hop oil are categorised into several chemical classes. These induce diverse aroma and flavour sensations in beer being described as ‘floral’, ‘fruity’ (e.g. contributed by alcohols, esters, sulphur-containing compounds), ‘spicy’, ‘woody’, ‘herbal’ (sesquiterpenes, oxygenated sesquiterpenoids), and ‘green’ (aldehydes). The perception of hop volatiles depends on their concentrations and combinations, but also on threshold levels in different beer matrices or model systems. Several studies attributed modified taste and mouthfeel sensations to the presence of hop volatiles contributing to a multisensory perception of hop flavour. Linalool is frequently observed to show additive and synergistic-type behaviour and to affect aroma perception if combined with geraniol. Linalool has also been found to be involved in aroma-taste interactions, modifying the perception of bitterness qualities in beer. Particularly oxygenated sesquiterpenoids are suggested to be responsible for an irritating, tingling sensation indicating the activation of trigeminal receptors. The majority of these sensory interactions have been discovered almost by accident and a systematic research approach is required to gain a broad understanding of these complex phenomena. This review provides an overview of factors affecting the perception of hop derived volatiles involved in different sensory characteristics of beer, while illustrating the latest advances and highlighting research gaps from a sensory science perspective. © 2020 The Authors. Journal of the Institute of Brewing published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Formation of 4-vinyl and 4-ethyl derivatives from hydroxycinnamic acids: Occurrence of volatile phenolic flavour compounds in beer and distribution of Pad1-activity among brewing yeasts

This work represents a survey of the occurrence of hydroxycinnamic acids and volatile phenols in a variety of beer styles. The contribution of 4-vinylguaiacol to the overall flavour perception of top-fermented specialty beers was shown. Significant differences in hydroxycinnamic acids (both free and ester-bound) and volatile phenol content between different beers were observed. The variability in volatile phenol content between different beers and beer styles can be explained by the high incidence of Pad1⁺ phenotype and the variability of Pad1 activity observed among top-fermenting brewing yeast strains. The relative importance of thermal versus enzymatic decarboxylation can account for the differences found between bottom and top-fermented beers. Concerning the optimisation of volatile phenol levels in beer, the selection of a suitable brewing yeast strain is the most important means of creating a phenolic taste profile in beer. Given that a considerable amount of hydroxycinnamic acids in beer still occurs in ester-bound form, enhancing the enzymatic release of these phenolic flavour precursors during mashing can greatly enhance the phenolic aroma potential of wort.     

SENSORY QUANTIFICATION OF BITTERNESS AND FLAVOUR OF BEER DURING STORAGE*

Sensory techniques were utilized to measure bitterness and degree of liking for commercial lagers, and to quantify aroma and flavour qualities of two sets of experimental lagers. Significant negative correlations were obtained between sensory bitterness and degree of liking for 17 commercial beers, by inexperienced as well as by trained judges. Sensory bitterness was positively correlated with BU values, with both measurements negatively correlated with beer age. In experimental lagers, BU values decreased with increasing time and temperature of storage, but sensory bitterness, as determined by trained judges, decreased only with storage time. Increases in malty, ethanol, and skunky aromas with time of storage were accompanied by decreases in hoppy, musty, and wet cardboard aromas. Baked aroma increased sharply with increasing storage temperature. In a second set of experimental lagers varying in pH (3·7, 4·2, or 4·6) and/or headspace gas, sourness was markedly affected by pH whereas baked flavour was significantly stronger in beers with O₂ than in those with CO₂ headspace. The data are discussed in terms of differences between analytical and consumer-type sensory testing, and in terms of changes in aroma and flavour attributable to iso-α-acid content, pH, headspace gas, and time and temperature of storage.     

How Foam Appearance Influences the Italian Consumer's Beer Perception and Preference

The current study presents the results of a survey performed to investigate whether different patterns of foam and lacing affect consumer beer preference and the perception of beer characteristics. The impact of three different levels of foam (huge, medium and little) at pouring, and two lacing patterns (very laced to not laced) during consumption, was evaluated on a set of 26 attributes by a panel of Italian beer consumers. Overall, beers which delivered a medium level of foam at pouring were considered by Italian consumers as the best dispensed, the most liked for their visual appearance, the most attractive to consume and the most likely to be purchased. Cluster analysis determined four groups of consumers with different preference patterns for beer foam and expectations for sensory characteristics of the beer. It was found that 80% of consumers preferred a medium level of foam and no lacing, whereas 20% of consumers preferred a high level of foam and lacing. Furthermore, for nearly 40% of consumers, foam and lacing patterns generated expectations regarding beer sweetness, bitterness, fruitiness, perceived level of alcohol, effervescence and the thirst quenching character of the beer.     

Effects of “craft” vs. “traditional” labels to beer consumers with different flavor preferences: A comprehensive multi-response approach

Common definitions of craft-style beers emphasize that they are brewed by small, local breweries and that they have complex, novel and, often, bold flavors. In recent research conducted with declared craft beer drinkers who tasted beers in a blind condition, Jaeger et al. (2020) [FQAP, 103884] identified the existence of two preference segments. One segment (Craft-style Likers) preferred the characteristic complex, novel and bold flavors of many craft-style beers, while the other segment (Traditional-style Likers) preferred the less complex and milder flavors associated with traditional-style beers. In the present research, a multivariate response approach that included the evaluation of liking, sensory, holistic/conceptual, and cognitive/emotional/situational responses, as well as beer-related attitudes and behaviors, was used to assess the same set of six beers in a similar sample of declared craft beer drinkers (n = 122) as used in our previous study. However, beers were now labeled to reflect the style of the beer (craft vs. traditional) and the size (small vs. large) and regional origin (local vs. international) of the brewer. Results confirmed the existence of the same two preference segments. Although the effects of labeling the beers in accordance with their craft- vs. traditional-style natures did not influence sensory, holistic/conceptual or cognitive responses, they did influence emotional and situational responses. For craft-style beer likers, the information increased their positive emotions and the situational uses for craft-style beers, while for the traditional-style beer likers the labeling had a corresponding positive effect on their judgments of the traditional style beers. The results confirm previous findings on beer and product labeling, which show that sensory properties are less susceptible to extrinsic information effects than are affective, emotional and other, non-sensory product judgments. Implications for craft and traditional brewers are discussed and suggestions for future research presented.     

Cross‐modal influence of colour from product and packaging alters perceived flavour of cider

With recent and rapidly growing consumer demand for alcoholic apple cider, markets have responded to provide for this demand. However, unlike the beer and wine industries, little consumer research exists to explore consumers' perception of cider. A large body of sensory research suggests that altering the colour of a food can significantly influence both perceived flavour of, and hedonic response to the food, despite there being no change to the food's taste or aroma qualities themselves. Our study was designed to understand how colour influences the perception of cider. A stock apple cider was subtly coloured red or green, and presented to consumers to evaluate hedonic response and for perception of flavour attributes. Following this, a cider identical to the control cider was presented with one of two labels, each featuring red or green prominently. Both the colour of the cider itself and the colour of the label significantly influenced perceived flavour and hedonic response to the ciders. Specifically, cider coloured green was perceived as being served at a colder temperature than the control, and the red sample showed an increase in perceived body. Red labelling of the cider made it seem both sweeter and fruitier. This study adds to the body of literature on multisensory perception of flavours, and may have significance for the cider industry's strategies for formulation and marketing. Copyright © 2018 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Influence of information about manufacturing process on beer acceptability

The purpose of this study is to investigate the extent to which consumer information concerning the manufacturing processes of beer can influence how acceptable the product is to the consumer. In this study subjects were informed that the beer had been produced (1) using genetically modified yeast; (2) with organic barley and hops, and (3) using traditional brewing technology. Three products were selected to represent high, moderate and low acceptability. A blind evaluation of the selected samples was followed by an assessment of the subjects' expectations of the sample products based on the different information about product processing. The impact of these expectations on liking after tasting the product was examined and demonstrated that information regarding manufacturing technology is capable of modifying the consumers' liking of beer. The disconfirmation that occurred as a result of different product–information combinations revealed that liking moved towards their expectations (assimilation). However assimilation was not complete, indicating that sensory properties of products were important in determining perceived quality. Finally, the present study does not entirely confirm findings of previous research. Combining different information with different levels of product liking may lead to a better understanding of the asymmetry of disconfirmation.