Contextual acceptance of insect-based foods

Insect-based foods have gained much attention as an alternative source of protein in recent years because of their high nutritional content and low production costs. However, consumer acceptance of insect-based foods still poses a big challenge in many societies. Across three studies, we examined how social companions (alone, friend, family, acquaintance, partner) and location (cafe, bar, pub, food festival) are associated with people’s willingness to eat insect-based foods. We also examined the positive arousing (fun, excitement) and positive calming (romance, tranquility) emotions that were evoked by several eating contexts. The results of Studies 1 and 2 revealed that participants expected that they would be more willing to eat insect-based foods with friends (vs. alone, family, acquaintance, partner) and in pubs and at food festivals (vs. in a cafe, bar). The results of Study 3 replicated the main findings of the first two studies using the actual names (not pictures) of insect-based food products, namely ‘mealworm burger’ and ‘cricket chocolate bar’. Moreover, these contexts, where people would be more willing to eat insect-based foods, were associated with positive arousing emotions (fun, excitement) rather than positive calming emotions (romance, tranquility). Taken together, then, these findings reveal the role of contexts associated with positive arousing emotions in eating insect-based foods and provide practical advice concerning the situations in which the consumer’s acceptance of insect-based foods may be increased.     

Americans’ acceptance of black soldier fly larvae as food for themselves,their dogs,and farmed animals

This paper investigates consumer attitudes towards Hermetia illucens larvae (aka Black Soldier Fly Larvae; BSFL) and other insects in two forms: dried whole insects and insect flour incorporated into a familiar food. In two studies, we assessed the willingness of American adults to try eating them directly, eating animals fed on them, and feeding them to their pet dog. Participants were significantly more willing to try food made with insect flour than to eat the whole insects, with the same pattern emerging for acceptability of insects in dog food. BSFL were roughly as acceptable as other insects (crickets, mealworms, ants). On average, participants had negative attitudes towards eating BSFL on their own, but the majority were willing to try foods containing BSFL in the form of insect flour or rendered fat. There are also suggestions in the data that indirect routes of consumption (e.g., consuming animals that have eaten insects, or feeding insects to one’s dog) are more acceptable than direct consumption. Our results suggest that BSFL are relatively well-received by consumers and are a promising alternative to the farmed animals more commonly used in pet food.     

A self-report measure of attitudes toward the eating of insects: construction and validation of the Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire

Research has made steps towards the understanding of the main drivers and barriers related to Western consumers’ acceptance of food with ingredients derived from insects. Nevertheless, research has been hampered by the absence of a comprehensive, specific, and validated instrument for measuring consumer attitudes towards entomophagy. The current study presents a new self-report instrument for addressing this issue. The instrument was built upon three conceptual cores, which are reflected in the three factors emerged and tested through factor analyses performed on a representative sample of the Danish population (Study 1: N = 975), and a convenience Italian sample (Study 2: N = 543). The first factor represents the negative evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely connected to disgust. The second factor represents the positive evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely linked to individuals’ interest to try novel experiences and to eat novel foods. The third factor addresses indirect entomophagy, that is, the attitude towards using insects for feeding other animals that are reared for human consumption. Compared to existing measures of disgust and neophobia, the new instrument performs better in predicting intention in relation to both direct and indirect entomophagy.     

Cross-validation of the entomophagy attitude questionnaire (EAQ): A study in China on eaters and non-eaters

Research interest in direct entomophagy (the eating of insects) and indirect entomophagy (the eating of insects-fed animals) has grown exponentially in recent years. The use of insects as food and feed is a potential avenue to meet the growing global food demand, and for enhancing the sustainability of animal diets as well. The Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire (EAQ) has been recently proposed as a specific measure of attitudes towards direct and indirect entomophagy. First aim of the current study was to cross-validate the EAQ in a non-Western country. An additional aim was to explore the differences between who have previously eaten insects and who have not. Hence, the EAQ was administered to a convenience Chinese sample (N = 395), together with measures of intention to eat insects either directly or indirectly. Confirmatory Factor Analysis showed a satisfactory fit of the EAQ three-factor model. The instrument showed adequate psychometric properties, and evidences of convergent and divergent validity of EAQ’s latent constructs were found. In addition, EAQ was found to predict effectively participants’ intention to engage both in direct and indirect entomophagy. Results thus support the validity of EAQ and the conceptualization underpinning it in a non-Western country. The main difference emerged between eaters and non-eaters regards the role of disgust, which is more predictive of intention for non-eaters, whereas positive attitude (interest) is more predictive for eaters. Hence, different communication strategies are suggested for individuals who already have vs. have not experienced the direct or indirect eating of insects.     

We will eat disgusting foods together – Evidence of the normative basis of Western entomophagy-disgust from an insect tasting

Insects are a highly sustainable and nutritious source of protein, and, thus, incorporating insects in to Western food culture is one way to address major global challenges like global warming and deforestation. Consumer studies show, however, that Westerners’ willingness to eat insect-containing food is low. One formidable barrier is the perception that insects are disgusting, and it is generally believed that this insect-disgust is driven by a fear of contamination and disease. Another barrier is the lack of social norms related to entomophagy in the West. In the present study, we tested effects of fear of contamination and perceived social eating norm with a survey and a tasting session administered to a Danish college sample (N = 189). Correlation analyses and multivariate regression analyses revealed that selfreported trait-level Pathogen Disgust and Perceived Infectability did not consistently predict insect eating disgust, willingness to eat insects, or actual insect tasting behavior in the tasting session. In contrast, perceived insect eating norm emerged as a significant predictor of insect tasting behavior. These findings suggest that perceived social norms play a substantial role in Westerners’ (un)willingness to eat insects. The result gives reason for optimism for aspirations of introducing insects in Western food diet and point to avenues for harnessing social norms in marketing efforts.     

Acceptance of insects as food in Germany: Is it about sensation seeking,sustainability consciousness,or food disgust?

This study examines the acceptance of insect-based foods by consumers in Germany. The nationwide online survey (N = 516) focused on which factors have the greatest influence on the willingness to consume an insect burger and buffalo worms. In addition to sociodemographic factors, meat consumption and the “classical” variables in the field of entomophagy (familiarity, previous insect consumption, food technology neophobia and food neophobia), the study focuses in particular on the previously unconsidered variables sensation seeking, sustainability consciousness and food disgust. A total of 41.9% of the participants were willing to consume an insect burger. In contrast, only 15.9% of the participants were willing to consume the buffalo worms – a principal ingredient of the insect burger. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that food disgust was the most important predictor for the acceptance of edible insects, followed by previous insect consumption, food neophobia, gender, sensation seeking and food technology neophobia. The high influence of food disgust shows that not only the explicit disgust for insects is decisive for the consumer readiness of insect-based products, but also the domain specific disgust for food. Despite the strong sustainability awareness of our participants, and contrary to our expectations, sustainability consciousness did not prove to be a significant predictor for the willingness to consume insects. Implications for marketing strategies and educational interventions will be discussed.     

Re-understanding the antecedents of functional foods purchase: Mediating effect of purchase attitude and moderating effect of food neophobia

The world market for functional foods has grown dynamically and China is expected to be one of the most promising markets. But little is understood the formation mechanisms of consumers’ purchase attitude and intention toward functional foods in Mainland China. The current study investigates the roles of trust, health consciousness and price in shaping consumers’ purchase intention toward functional foods by focusing on purchase attitude as a mediator and food neophobia as a moderator. Results from the sample of 1144 Chinese suggest that Chinese consumers had moderate purchase intention toward functional foods. Trust in the food system and health consciousness positively affects purchase intention via purchase attitude. Price negatively affects purchase intention; meanwhile, the negative effect could be counteracted by health consciousness. Food neophobia does not directly affect individuals’ purchase attitude or intention, but moderates the relationships between antecedents and them. Consumers with a low level of food neophobia treat higher price as a monetary sacrifice, while their counterparts may regard a higher price as a greater quality signal. The study offers the food industry insights into the development and marketing of functional foods targeted to the Mainland China market.     

The insectivore’s dilemma,and how to take the West out of it

A number of health and agricultural organizations have been encouraging Westerners to integrate insects into their diet, without success. Appealing to consumer’s reason and responsibility, as they do, is likely to reinforce a dilemma in the mind of consumers: many know that they can, in principle, eat insects, and perhaps that they should eat some, but very few are willing to eat them. Here we argue that current strategies are on the wrong track in identifying the key obstacle to overcome as a question of the negative representation of insects. Decades of laboratory research, as well as years of experience in gastronomy, suggest that people’s food choices are relatively immune to rational changes of representation, and instead tend to be driven by taste preferences and exposure. Here we suggest an alternative sensorially-driven strategy, which stands a much greater chance of making people eat insects on a regular basis. The turn – or better said return – to entomophagy in this sense, needs to be driven by a psychologically realistic motivation and gastronomic interest.     

Consumer acceptance of insect-based alternative meat products in Western countries

During the past few years, entomophagy has been increasing in significance. As insects are generally high in protein, they are principally considered as meat substitutes. Nevertheless, in Western countries, meat substitute consumption is actually very low, principally due to food neophobia and poor sensory qualities in comparison with meat. In insect particular case, food neophobia is clearly high. To reduce insect food neophobia, previous studies suggest to insert invisible insect in food preparation and/or to associate them with known flavors. In this study, a survey on entomophagy perception and hedonic tests were realized to assess the level of sensory-liking of hybrid insect-based burgers (beef, lentils, mealworms and beef, mealworms and lentils). Participants’ overall liking of the four burgers differed between genders and was influenced by burger appearance and taste. Women clearly preferred beef burger appearance, whereas men preferred the appearance of beef and insect-based burgers. Concerning insect-based burger taste, participants (men and women) rated it intermediately, between that of the beef and lentil burger, with a preference for the mealworm and beef burger. Results also showed that people with previous entomophagy experience was limited but that they gave globally higher ratings to all preparations. In conclusion, insect tasting sessions are important to decrease food neophobia, as they encourage people to “take the first step” and become acquainted with entomophagy. Nevertheless, insect integration into Western food culture will involve a transitional phase with minced or powdered insects incorporated into ready-to-eat preparations, as people are not ready to add insects to their diets in “whole form.”     

Correlation between saltiness perception and shear flow behaviour for viscous solutions

Salt plays a major role in the human diet and food as tastant, flavour enhancer, nutrient, preservative and structuring aid. While intake of salt is part of a healthy diet, the vast majority of people in the developed world consume salt at a level high enough to place them at risk of developing diet induced illnesses. Salt intake is predominantly from processed foods. In this study it has been investigated whether careful choice of the viscosity behaviour of food thickeners, as used in processed foods, is exploitable to enhance saltiness perception and therefore allows reducing the content of salt in processed foods without compromising flavour.     

Disgusting or delicious? Examining attitudinal ambivalence towards entomophagy among Danish consumers

Current meat consumption habits will need to change, especially those of Western consumers. The level of meat consumption is unsustainable, and a recent study estimates a necessary reduction of 90% of the current intake. Insects are a promising alternative to existing protein sources, but previous literature has emphasised the initial level of disgust displayed towards insects as a food option. The overall aim of this paper is to understand the attitude of consumers towards eating insects, also termed entomophagy, in order to outline the barriers that prevent adoption and provide insights in order to overcome these. Data were collected through an online questionnaire with a representative sample of Danish consumers (n = 975). Several constructs from the literature were measured: food neophobia, disgust, intention to try and intention to eat regularly. In addition, a new attitude scale was used, that specifically measures the attitude towards entomophagy. A discrete choice experiment was a part of the questionnaire. Using LatentGold 5.1 a segmentation analysis based on the choice experiment was conducted. The influences of intention were analysed using hierarchical regression in SPSS 25. Results of the choice experiment indicate that different segments of consumers of entomophagy exist, and that different segments are interested in different types of insects. Younger consumers and males are more positive towards entomophagy in general and the insect options in the choice experiment. Results of the regression analysis indicate that the attitude toward eating insects is multidimensional and that there seem to be indications of attitude ambivalence in all segments. The interest in entomophagy is important, as it will be a key factor in overcoming the barrier of disgust and turning insects into an acceptable food choice in the Western world.     

Can insects increase food security in developing countries? An analysis of Kenyan consumer preferences and demand for cricket flour buns

Achieving food security in an environmentally sustainable manner is one of the biggest challenges of our time. Using insects as food can serve this purpose because they are nutritionally valuable and environmentally friendly. Embracing insects as food requires information on potential consumer demand as this would determine the success of product development. In this study, we present one of the first thorough assessments of consumer demand for an insect-based food. We assessed the demand in terms of Kenyan consumer preferences and willingness to pay for buns containing varying amounts of cricket flour. We also assessed demand by predicting the market share in a presumed market scenario. The study used an incentivized discrete choice experiment integrated with sensory evaluations. This was intended to reduce any hypothetical bias and to allow participants to acquire experience by tasting the buns. We found significant and positive preferences for the cricket-flour-based buns. The bun products with medium amounts (5%) of cricket flour were preferred to no or high amounts (10%) of cricket flour. Market share predictions showed that cricket-flour-based buns were likely to obtain greater market shares than standard buns. Results also suggested that a market for breads made with cricket flour is likely in Kenya since the demand is present. This signals that insect-based food products may serve as a viable and demand-driven way to increase food security in Kenya in the future.     

The effects of carrier,benefit, and perceived trust in information channel on functional food purchase intention among Chinese consumers

The importance of consumers’ perceptions and adoption behavior has been recognized in the development of functional food innovation, but the issues have not been widely explored in China. This study aimed to examine the effects of carrier, benefit, and trust in information channel about functional foods on purchase intention as well as the demographic differences of these effects. A survey with 1144 respondents from Mainland China revealed that carriers were more important factors than benefits for perceived attractiveness and purchase intention. Benefits were more positively evaluated when attached to a more attractive carrier. Benefits of improving the body’s natural defense system were most favored by all groups; benefits about specific diseases were suitable to tailor for certain groups. Consumers with low educational level were reluctant to functional foods. The improvement of consumer education level does not necessarily increase the consumers’ purchase intention. Given the Chinese acquaintance society and the jeopardized public trust in food safety, the interpersonal channel was the most trusted information channel. However, perceived trust in mass media had more remarkable effects in predicting purchase intention toward functional foods, the typical products with credence attributes. Trust in mass media negatively interacted with friends’ recommendation in affecting purchase intention. These findings extend our understanding of how to tailor products for different groups and the effects of information channels on purchase intention.     

Attractiveness and consumption of finger foods in elderly Alzheimer’s disease patients

Finger foods are helpful for patients with Alzheimer’s disease because they enable them to eat alone with their fingers rather than with cutlery, once this has become too difficult to use. By applying this solution, patients with Alzheimer’s disease can gain in autonomy and rediscover the pleasure of eating on their own. However, the provision of attractive finger foods is essential to ensuring that these patients will be willing to choose and consume them. In this context, the aim of our study was to investigate the attractiveness factors of finger foods to Alzheimer’s disease patients. Three parameters for the formulation of finger foods (the addition of a sauce, changes to shape and contrast) were thus studied as a result of interviews with 19 professionals in nursing homes. They were then tested separately using paired comparison tests in real-life mealtime situations. 114 Alzheimer’s patients living in nursing homes participated in this study. The results showed that the finger foods with a sauce (vs. no sauce) and with two layers (vs. one layer where all ingredients were mixed) were more frequently chosen first and then consumed. By contrast, the shape (moulded vs. squared) of the finger foods had no significant impact on first choice and food consumption. These findings support the view that Alzheimer’s patients are able to make food choices when offered alternatives; choosing first and consuming more of the alternatives most attractive to them. Future research efforts will focus on a more detailed investigation of food attractiveness related to the food perceptions of AD patients.     

Mindfulness and willingness to try insects as food: The role of disgust

Mindfulness, commonly associated with Buddhism, refers to the state of being aware, taking note of what is going on within oneself and outside of the world. In the current research, we examine the possible impact of mindfulness on willingness to try insect foods. We present the results of three studies—one correlational and two experimental—illustrating that mindfulness increases disgust and lowers willingness to try eating insects. On the one hand, this counters existing literature that mindfulness reduces emotional reactivity. On the other hand, it is in-line with mindfulness making one more aware and accepting of present and incoming information, which would conceivably include context-relevant emotions such as disgust in the case of eating insects that Western cultures see as disgusting. Our findings support the latter possibility. We situate our work within the literature on the various impacts of mindfulness on food choice. We also discuss implications for food sustainability practitioners.     

Psychometric evaluation of the German version of the Variety Seeking Tendency Scale (VARSEEK)

As part of a healthy diet, guidelines recommend eating a variety of foods to reduce risks associated with malnutrition. However, whether people follow this recommendation substantially depends on their willingness to try unfamiliar foods, also referred to as food neophilia. This study aimed at comprehensively validating the German version of the Variety Seeking Tendency Scale (VARSEEK), a common instrument to assess food neophilia. Two independent sub-studies were conducted to examine the German VARSEEK’s psychometric properties. Study 1 (N = 532, aged 18–91 years) and Study 2 (N = 468, aged 18–73 years) each comprised a German community sample. Data were collected both online and via a paper–pencil version. Whereas Study 1 included an EFA, Study 2 comprised a CFA, analyses of the VARSEEK’s reliability and construct validity, and different explorative group comparisons. EFA and CFA results supported the original scale’s unidimensionality. Internal consistency (α = .93) and test-retest reliability (r = .87) of the scale were high. VARSEEK scores were positively associated with openness, sensation seeking, and extraversion and negatively associated with food neophobia, general neophobia, and trait anxiety. Construct validity was further established by showing positive associations with ratings of familiarity with and willingness to try familiar and unfamiliar foods. Whereas group comparisons revealed no significant differences for sex, age, and weight status, analyses showed that people who belonged to the upper class were more food neophilic than those assigned to the lower and middle class. Findings further underscore that the German VARSEEK is a reliable and valid instrument for the assessment of food neophilia in the German population.     

Food neophobia and willingness to try non-traditional foods for Koreans

Non-traditional ethnic foods are a new category of foods that have not been experienced by consumers. The objective of this study was to investigate the attitudes of consumers toward the familiarity and willingness to try non-traditional foods by food neophobia level, as well as to determine the relationship between non-traditional ethnic food experiences and food neophobia in Korea. Food neophobia was measured by the Food Neophobia Scale (FNS). The mean FNS score among Koreans was 33.5 (SD = 9.0). The high food neophobia group was less likely to have experiences with non-traditional foods in comparison to the low food neophobia group. Food neophobia significantly predicted the familiarity and willingness to try various non-traditional ethnic foods. Among the 12 non-traditional ethnic foods, the participants had the least familiarity and willingness to try African and Mongolian foods. In terms of the level of willingness, Vietnamese, Indian, Thai, Mexican, Turkish, Greek, Mongolian, African, Japanese and Italian foods showed significant differences among the food neophobia groups but Chinese and American foods did not. This study was a first and meaningful attempt to validate FNS in Asia for the delineation of consumer responses of various non-traditional food products.     

A sharp,sweet tooth: Vampires,junk food,and dangerous appetites in the lost boys and the hunger

Next to blood, fast food and junk food make up the most common meals in ‘80s vampire fiction. Whether munching on chips, devouring a Big Mac, or slurping down soda, humans use these foods to satisfy hunger, assuage anxiety, provide a needed jolt of caffeine, and pass the time between sunset and sunrise. The vampires in these works tend to function in one of three ways. They can serve as metaphors for the food industry, preying on young and old with products designed to foster overconsumption and addiction. They can symbolize the country’s addiction to processed foods and the excesses of consumerism more broadly. And finally, they can even emerge as ironic images for healthy eating as they seek a natural, more organic diet than their junk-food addicted victims. In each case, these creatures indict an industry that profited from turning consumers into junkies, craving foods that promised heart disease, high cholesterol, and obesity. Films such as Joel Schumacher’s The Lost Boys (1987) and Whitley Strieber’s novel The Hunger (1981) offer two examples of the way this genre explored the nation’s appetite for junk food and challenged audiences to find a way to save themselves from this addiction before it was too late.     

Food in an evolutionary context: insights from mother's milk

In the emergence of diverse animal life forms, food is the most insistent and pervasive of environmental pressures. As the life sciences begin to understand organisms in genomic detail, evolutionary perspectives provide compelling insights into the results of these dynamic interactions between food and consumer. Such an evolutionary perspective is particularly needed today in the face of unprecedented capabilities to alter the food supply. What should we change? Answering this question for food production, safety and sustainability will require a much more detailed understanding of the complex interplay between humans and their food. Many organisms that we grow, produce, process and consume as foods naturally evolved adaptations in part to avoid being eaten. Crop breeding and processing have been the tools to convert overtly toxic and antinutritious commodities into foods that are safe to eat. Now the challenge is to enhance the nutritional quality and thereby contribute to improving human health. We posit that the Rosetta stone of food and nourishment is mammalian lactation and ‘mother's milk’. The milk that a mammalian mother produces for her young is a complete and comprehensive diet. Moreover, the capacity of the mammary gland as a remarkable bioreactor to synthesise milk, and the infant to utilise milk, reflects 200 million years of symbiotic co‐evolution between producer and consumer. Here we present emerging transdisciplinary research ‘decoding’ mother's milk from humans and other mammals. We further discuss how insights from mother's milk have important implications for food science and human health. Copyright © 2012 Society of Chemical Industry