Acceptance of insects as food in Germany: Is it about sensation seeking,sustainability consciousness,or food disgust?

This study examines the acceptance of insect-based foods by consumers in Germany. The nationwide online survey (N = 516) focused on which factors have the greatest influence on the willingness to consume an insect burger and buffalo worms. In addition to sociodemographic factors, meat consumption and the “classical” variables in the field of entomophagy (familiarity, previous insect consumption, food technology neophobia and food neophobia), the study focuses in particular on the previously unconsidered variables sensation seeking, sustainability consciousness and food disgust. A total of 41.9% of the participants were willing to consume an insect burger. In contrast, only 15.9% of the participants were willing to consume the buffalo worms – a principal ingredient of the insect burger. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that food disgust was the most important predictor for the acceptance of edible insects, followed by previous insect consumption, food neophobia, gender, sensation seeking and food technology neophobia. The high influence of food disgust shows that not only the explicit disgust for insects is decisive for the consumer readiness of insect-based products, but also the domain specific disgust for food. Despite the strong sustainability awareness of our participants, and contrary to our expectations, sustainability consciousness did not prove to be a significant predictor for the willingness to consume insects. Implications for marketing strategies and educational interventions will be discussed.     

Attitudes and acceptance of young people toward the consumption of insects and cultured meat in Germany

The present study examined the willingness of children and adolescents (N = 718, M_Age = 13.67, SD = 2.31; female = 57.5%) from Germany to consume insects and cultured meat. One focus of the study was the comparison of attitudes toward foods made from insects and cultured meat in general and in a specific form (a burger). Another focus was analyzing the influence of selected nutritional-psychological factors on the willingness of children and adolescents to consume these products. In addition to sociodemographic factors (age, sex), meat consumption, familiarity, attitudes, food neophobia, and food disgust were included as variables. The study participants showed a significantly higher willingness to consume the cultured meat burger than the insect burger, although no difference could be shown in their attitudes toward the alternatives as food (i.e., irrespective of their form of preparation). Hierarchical multiple regression revealed that the attitude toward the alternative protein product in burger form, specifically, was the strongest predictor for the willingness to consume both burger alternatives. This illustrates that the attitudes of children and adolescents toward a particular product are especially important. The negative influence of food neophobia on the willingness to consume the meat alternatives, which had previously been reported in other studies, was confirmed in this study. In the regression model with the sociodemographic variables, food disgust showed a negative influence on the willingness to consume the two meat alternatives; however, this negative influence was not detected after including the nutritional-psychological variables in the model. Proposals for the use of the results of this study in designing marketing strategies and educational interventions in schools are presented.     

We will eat disgusting foods together – Evidence of the normative basis of Western entomophagy-disgust from an insect tasting

Insects are a highly sustainable and nutritious source of protein, and, thus, incorporating insects in to Western food culture is one way to address major global challenges like global warming and deforestation. Consumer studies show, however, that Westerners’ willingness to eat insect-containing food is low. One formidable barrier is the perception that insects are disgusting, and it is generally believed that this insect-disgust is driven by a fear of contamination and disease. Another barrier is the lack of social norms related to entomophagy in the West. In the present study, we tested effects of fear of contamination and perceived social eating norm with a survey and a tasting session administered to a Danish college sample (N = 189). Correlation analyses and multivariate regression analyses revealed that selfreported trait-level Pathogen Disgust and Perceived Infectability did not consistently predict insect eating disgust, willingness to eat insects, or actual insect tasting behavior in the tasting session. In contrast, perceived insect eating norm emerged as a significant predictor of insect tasting behavior. These findings suggest that perceived social norms play a substantial role in Westerners’ (un)willingness to eat insects. The result gives reason for optimism for aspirations of introducing insects in Western food diet and point to avenues for harnessing social norms in marketing efforts.     

It’s not queasy being green: The role of disgust in willingness-to-pay for more sustainable product alternatives

Scholars differ in the extent to which they regard the “yuck factor” as an important predictor of sustainable consumption decisions. In the present decision experiment we tested whether people’s disgust traits predicted relative willingness-to-pay (WTP) for sustainable product alternatives, including atypically-shaped fruit and vegetables; insect-based food products; and medicines/drinks with reclaimed ingredients from sewage. In a community sample of 510 participants (255 women), using path analyses we examined the extent to which effects of disgust traits on WTP were mediated by cognitive appraisals of perceived taste, health risk, naturalness, visual appeal, and nutritional/medicinal value. Further, we assessed whether these effects were moderated by the tendency to regulate disgust using reappraisal and suppression techniques. Across all product categories, when controlling for important covariates such as pro-environmental attitudes, we found a significant negative effect of trait disgust propensity on WTP. In total, a 1 SD increase in participants’ disgust propensity scores predicted between 6% and 11% decrease in WTP. Appraisals of perceived naturalness, taste, health risk, and visual appeal significantly mediated these effects, differing in importance across the product categories, and explaining approximately half of the total effect of disgust propensity on WTP. Little-to-no support was found for moderation of effects by trait reappraisal or suppression. Individual differences in disgust are likely to be a barrier for certain viable sustainable alternatives to prototypical products. Marketing interventions targeting consumer appraisals, including in particular the perceived naturalness and taste, of these kinds of products may be effective.     

Willingness of Iranian young adults to eat organic foods: Application of the Health Belief Model

This study investigates the determinants of organic foods consumer behavior in Iran. This will further understanding of consumer decision-making regarding organically produced foods and help identify strategies for promoting their consumption. The focus of the study was to explore the influence of constructs of the Health Beliefs Model on willingness to use organic foods using a multistage, stratified random sample of young adults (n = 389) in a survey conducted in Iran. Structural equation modeling showed that perceived benefits, general health orientation regarding pesticides and organic foods, self-efficacy and perceived barriers are significant predictors of willingness regarding the use of organic foods. These variables can predict nearly 42% variance of young adults’ willingness to use organic food. The findings yield public policy and marketing recommendations for stimulating organic food consumption among young adults.     

Willingness to trial functional foods and vitamin supplements: The role of attitudes,subjective norms,and dread of risks

Australian non-users of vitamin supplements (N = 162) and functional foods (N = 226) responded to a questionnaire examining their attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control from the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), risk dread and risk familiarity, and willingness to engage in free product trials. The impact of participants’ gender and age was also examined. Attitude and subjective norms were significant determinants of non-users willingness to trial each of the health products. Participants’ dread of the risk associated with the product was also a determinant of willingness to use functional foods. The overall models predicted between 25% and 30% of the variance in people’s willingness to trial the products. The findings provided some support for the TPB in predicting people’s willingness to trial functional foods and vitamin supplements and suggested, for willingness to trial functional foods, that non-users’ are also influenced by their dread of the risk associated with product use.     

Product appropriateness,willingness to try and perceived risks of foods containing insect protein powder: A survey of U.S. consumers

As a sustainable alternative to livestock consumption, insect protein has applications beyond meat substitution. However, strategies to normalise entomophagy in the United States have been less explored than in Europe. Two online surveys (N = 1005 U.S. consumers) identified the most appropriate products, from a list of 30, for insect protein powder incorporation by evaluating willingness to try (WTT). Consumers reported perceived risks for negative WTT, and the effect of entomophagy benefit information (EBI) on WTT was measured. Overall, 72% of consumers were willing to consume at least one insect-containing product. The three most appropriate products were protein/energy bars, chips/snack crackers and protein shakes. Bakery/cereal products garnered positive WTT by >54% of consumers, followed by snacks/candy (53%). Unfamiliarity with insects as food was the most cited risk. EBI presentation significantly increased (α < 0.05, McNemar’s test) positive WTT for all products. Once unfamiliarity is overcome through trial, negative emotions and concerns about sensory quality can be addressed.     

Effects of the degree of processing of insect ingredients in snacks on expected emotional experiences and willingness to eat

This study explored willingness to eat and the negative and positive emotional expectations that people from a Western country may have toward the consumption of insect snacks. The snacks, which were presented as pictures in an online survey, differed in their degree of processing of the insect ingredient: tortilla chips made of cricket flour (“flour”), tortilla chips containing deep-fried cricket bits (“bits”), a snack consisting of tortilla chips and deep-fried crickets (“mix”), and deep-fried crickets (“crickets”). Swiss respondents (N = 428) made 39 emotional evaluations, rated willingness to eat and expected liking of the presented products. Each participant evaluated the same non-insect-containing snack (within-subjects design) and one of four insect-containing snacks (between-subjects design). Results showed that the insect snacks evoked various negative emotional expectations that went beyond expectations of disgust. Positive emotional expectations were less expected to occur. Furthermore, expectations related to disgust/uneasiness, inertia/dissatisfaction, and positive emotional evaluations were significant predictors of willingness to eat. The degree of processing of the insect ingredient partly influenced the ratings, with the “mix” product being assessed more negatively than the “flour” or “bits” products. The “cricket” product was rated more positive than expected.The research indicates that in the development and marketing of insect food, efforts should be undertaken not only to eliminate initial negative expectations of disgust and dissatisfaction but also to generate positive emotional expectations. We suggest the marketing of snacks containing processed insect ingredients will be more promising, and selling whole insects alone is more preferable to selling a mixed snack. Regardless of the degree of processing of the insect ingredient, the results suggest that marketing activities must contend with a large emotional barrier.     

Factors influencing changes in sustainability perception of various food behaviors: Results of a longitudinal study

It is important to understand better how people evaluate the environmental impacts of different food aspects. A longitudinal panel study design (N = 2600) was used to examine whether the perceptions of various environment-related, food consumption patterns changed between 2010 and 2014 and what factors influenced such changes. The results indicated that participants evaluated the eating less meat (maximum of once or twice per week) behavior as substantially more beneficial for the environment in 2014 compared with 2010. The study design allowed us to examine which factors influenced the changes in the perception of the environmental benefits of eating less meat. Participants who perceived the arguments that reducing meat consumption is better for the environment, better for the health, and prevents animal suffering as more convincing in 2014 compared with 2010 also perceived eating less meat as more beneficial for the environment in the 2014 survey compared with the 2010 survey. An increase in participants’ health consciousness and the change scores in their convictions that seasonal fruits and vegetables taste better and are cheaper strengthened their belief that such behaviors would be beneficial for the environment. Therefore, the results suggest that the halo effect may have influenced participants’ evaluations. Consumers lack general factual knowledge about product-specific environmental footprints. Highlighting the direct benefits for consumers will likely increase their willingness to reduce environment-unfriendly consumption patterns.     

Mindfulness and willingness to try insects as food: The role of disgust

Mindfulness, commonly associated with Buddhism, refers to the state of being aware, taking note of what is going on within oneself and outside of the world. In the current research, we examine the possible impact of mindfulness on willingness to try insect foods. We present the results of three studies—one correlational and two experimental—illustrating that mindfulness increases disgust and lowers willingness to try eating insects. On the one hand, this counters existing literature that mindfulness reduces emotional reactivity. On the other hand, it is in-line with mindfulness making one more aware and accepting of present and incoming information, which would conceivably include context-relevant emotions such as disgust in the case of eating insects that Western cultures see as disgusting. Our findings support the latter possibility. We situate our work within the literature on the various impacts of mindfulness on food choice. We also discuss implications for food sustainability practitioners.     

Contextual acceptance of insect-based foods

Insect-based foods have gained much attention as an alternative source of protein in recent years because of their high nutritional content and low production costs. However, consumer acceptance of insect-based foods still poses a big challenge in many societies. Across three studies, we examined how social companions (alone, friend, family, acquaintance, partner) and location (cafe, bar, pub, food festival) are associated with people’s willingness to eat insect-based foods. We also examined the positive arousing (fun, excitement) and positive calming (romance, tranquility) emotions that were evoked by several eating contexts. The results of Studies 1 and 2 revealed that participants expected that they would be more willing to eat insect-based foods with friends (vs. alone, family, acquaintance, partner) and in pubs and at food festivals (vs. in a cafe, bar). The results of Study 3 replicated the main findings of the first two studies using the actual names (not pictures) of insect-based food products, namely ‘mealworm burger’ and ‘cricket chocolate bar’. Moreover, these contexts, where people would be more willing to eat insect-based foods, were associated with positive arousing emotions (fun, excitement) rather than positive calming emotions (romance, tranquility). Taken together, then, these findings reveal the role of contexts associated with positive arousing emotions in eating insect-based foods and provide practical advice concerning the situations in which the consumer’s acceptance of insect-based foods may be increased.     

The influence of product preparation,familiarity and individual traits on the consumer acceptance of insects as food

Insects are highly valued as food in many cultures but have only recently gained interest in the West as a sustainable alternative to reduce the environmental impact of meat production. Despite the growing consumer interest in insect consumption, there is still a great disparity between curious trying and actual acceptance. The aim of this study was to examine how the product preparation, familiarity and individual traits (e.g. food neophobia) influence the consumer acceptance of insects as food. Dutch consumers (n = 976) evaluated 8 mealworm product images on 4 acceptability measures (product appropriateness, expected sensory-liking, willingness to buy, willingness to try). Product images varied according to mealworm visibility (visible/invisible), carrier flavour (savoury/sweet) and carrier origin (Western/Asian). High product acceptability was not simply achieved by adding mealworms to familiar foods. Acceptability depended very much on the perceived appropriateness of mealworms as food and the perceived appropriateness of the product combination. However, mealworm products were always expected to be inferior to the carrier products, even when visually identical. Familiarity with mealworms and individual traits played a relatively minor role, and influenced the willingness to try more than the other acceptability measures. We conclude that appropriate product design is important but insufficient to achieve consumer acceptance of insects as food in the West. Additional incentives are required to encourage acceptance beyond the mere willingness to try. We discuss the complexities underlying the consumer acceptance of insects as food and reflect on how acceptance might be increased in the future.     

The relationship between disgust sensitivity and BMI: Is the food disgusting or am I?

Core disgust is a negative emotion, comprised of disgust in response to food, animals, and from the body itself (and its products). Individual differences exist in the level to which people experience the emotion of core disgust. Sensitivity to disgust has been associated negatively with Body Mass Index (BMI) in overweight and obese people, and to eating disorders independently from BMI. This study investigates the relationship between disgust sensitivity and BMI by examining data from the Italian Taste Project (n = 2317). We hypothesized that the relationship between disgust sensitivity and BMI, after accounting for age and gender, may be mediated by other factors, such as 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) sensitivity or eating restraint, and that this relationship might differ in non-obese and obese individuals. Results showed that the relationship between sensitivity to disgust and food behaviors is complex and differs between obese and non-obese people. Two mediation models were considered. In the first case restrained eating acted as a mediator of disgust sensitivity in the prediction of BMI, while in the second one BMI acted only as a partial mediator of disgust sensitivity in the prediction of restrained eating. This suggests that heightened sensitivity to core disgust may be associated with a heightened sensitivity to self-disgust, motivating restrained eating behaviors when BMI is higher, but only in non-obese individuals.     

The relationship between disgust sensitivity and behaviour: A virtual reality study on food disgust

This study was the first to use virtual reality for disgust research and pursued two aims. First, we explored whether it was possible to induce disgust in a virtual environment. Second, we examined the relationship between food disgust sensitivity, presence (a psychological state of “being there”), and participants’ willingness to eat a food item after exposure to a virtual disgust cue. We asked 100 participants to eat chocolate and complete a tasting experiment within a virtual environment while wearing a head-mounted HTC Vive device. The control group (n = 50) saw a piece of chocolate appear in the virtual environment on a table in front of them before being asked to take and eat it. The disgust group (n = 50) saw a dog that walked across the table and stopped halfway to produce dog faeces that looked like a piece of chocolate. Subsequently, participants were asked to eat a real piece of chocolate. In both groups, participants were given the opportunity to refuse consumption. Participants in the experimental condition were more likely to refuse consumption than those in the control condition. Furthermore, in the experimental condition, we found that physical presence mediated the relationship between participants’ food disgust sensitivity and willingness to eat the chocolate. Our data suggested that virtual reality is a valid way to evoke disgust for the purposes of research and that people who are disgust sensitive have more difficulty ignoring virtual disgust cues than people who are less disgust sensitive.     

Discordance in risk perception between children,parents, and teachers in terms of consumption of cheap and poorly nutritious food sold around schools

Little is known about the eating behavior of Asian children when faced with a range of poorly nutritious foods sold around schools, and whether they appreciate the risks involved in consuming such foods. To provide adequate education regarding proper food consumption, it is essential to understand how children perceive the potential risks and to examine their actual eating behaviors. The perceptions of adults and children should also be compared. This study selected children from the most populous primary schools (n = 166) in 36 of the national capital regions of the Republic of Korea. A total of 443 children were randomly selected from each school and they, their parents (n = 425), and nutrition teachers (n = 166) were asked to complete a questionnaire (total 11 questions) designed to examine how children and adults perceived the risks associated with the consumption of cheap and poorly nutritious foods sold around schools. Most children (>70%) consumed these foods more than once per week, even though they were aware that they may be potential hazardous. Children were significantly less concerned about the risks associated with their eating behaviors than their parents and teachers (p < 0.05), particularly regarding snacks prepared and cooked under unhygienic conditions. Although parents and teachers were very concerned about children’s food consumption, they misunderstood the level of children’s awareness, their preferences, and their actual eating behaviors. This study generated a database of information about children’s actual eating behavior around schools, and the perception (by children, parents, and teachers) of the risks. This database may contribute to the design of suitable educational programs for children, parents, and teachers.     

Do healthy,child-friendly fruit and vegetable snacks appeal to consumers? A field study exploring adults’ perceptions and purchase intentions

The majority of children in the U.S. do not consume enough fruits and vegetables (FV). Children’s liking of and preferences for FV are consistent predictors of intake, as are factors such as availability and accessibility, which are largely under the control of parents and caregivers. This study was designed to examine parents’ and caregivers’ current purchasing habits regarding child-friendly (CF)-shaped foods and pre-cut produce; determine their sensory perceptions of CF-shaped vs. regular-shaped pre-cut FV; and, to ascertain their willingness to pay slightly more for CF-shaped FV compared to fresh, whole produce. Healthy, CF-shaped fruit and vegetable snacks were developed by cutting FV into CF shapes (butterfly, chick, flower, teddy bear). Participants (n = 298) were adults, the majority of whom (66.1%) reported having children at home. Participants who reported having children at home consistently recognized CF-shaped fruit and vegetable samples as CF-shaped foods, while 64.4% of participants with children at home perceived regular-shaped pre-cut fruit and vegetable samples as CF-shaped foods. Participants rated CF-shaped samples as more visually appealing than regular-shaped samples, (p < 0.0001) and were 34% more likely to select CF-shaped samples. Female gender, the presence of children in the home, and frequent self-reported purchase of pre-cut produce were also significant positive predictors of visual appeal. Taste and texture ratings were not consistently significantly higher for CF-shaped fruit and vegetable samples. CF shape predicted higher willingness to pay extra for the fruit and vegetable product (p = 0.0057), as did frequent purchase of pre-cut produce and CF-shaped foods. Adults, particularly females and individuals with children in the household, find CF-shaped FV highly visually appealing and are willing to pay slightly more for these foods. Healthy, ready-to-eat, CF-shaped fruit and vegetable snacks may be a promising marketing strategy to help increase fruit and vegetable intake among children.     

Environmental impact judgments of meat,vegetarian, and insect burgers: Unifying the negative footprint illusion and quantity insensitivity

Climate-related risks for natural and human systems increase with global warming. Meat production contributes considerably to global greenhouse gas emissions. Changes in consumption patterns can help reduce this impact – e.g., by replacing meat with plant or insect-based alternatives. For this to happen, it is important to understand how such products are perceived in terms of their environmental impact. Two cognitive biases – the negative footprint illusion and quantity insensitivity – have been shown to affect this perception. The present study (N = 501; M_Age = 47.8, SD = 16.8; 48.9% female) tries to replicate both biases in the context of meat, vegetarian, and insect burgers. In an online experiment, participants viewed pictures of a variety of meals and rated their environmental impact on a “carbon footprint scale” (between-subject design). We found that footprint ratings of a prototypic fast food meal consisting of fries, water, and either a vegetarian or an insect burger did not significantly differ from the ratings given to the meal without the burger (“negative footprint illusion”), while the addition of a meat burger increased the rating. Furthermore, we found that participants’ judgments were insensitive to the quantity of the presented burgers, and they reacted only to the type of the burger patty (“quantity insensitivity”). We did not find that “green consumer values” – the tendency to express the value of environmental conservation through one’s purchase and consumption behavior – influenced the estimation. Throughout all conditions, beef burgers consistently received higher footprint ratings than vegetarian and insect burgers. While we could not strictly replicate the original results, we conclude that our findings are still consistent with previous studies and can enrich the understanding of the underlying cognitive processes causing them. Specifically, we propose that both biases can be attributed to the same general-purpose heuristic of intuitive judgment – namely, “attribute substitution”, and the “prototype heuristic” in particular.     

Validation and application of a German version of the Dietarian Identity Questionnaire: Revealing differences between omnivores,vegetarians, and vegans

The Dietarian Identity Questionnaire (DIQ; Rosenfeld & Burrow, 2018) assesses how an individual thinks, feels, and behaves regarding the consumption or eschewal of animal products. This instrument offers a useful method for understanding how omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans alike construct their eating behaviours. In the current study (N = 961), we validated a German translation of the DIQ – the DIQ-D – and compared the dietarian identity profiles of omnivores, vegetarians, and vegans. Confirmatory factor analyses replicated the factor structure reported for the DIQ in English-speaking samples. Compared to omnivores, vegetarians considered their diet to be more central to their overall sense of identity, felt stronger motivations to follow their diet, adhered to their diet more strictly, evaluated their dietary in-group more favourably, evaluated their dietary out-group more negatively, and felt as though their dietary in-group was judged more negatively by others. For all of these effects, vegans reported more extreme scores than did vegetarians. Exploratory analyses of more nuanced dietary subgroups revealed differences in dietarian identity profiles between vegans who consume honey versus vegans who eschew honey and between pescetarians who self-identify as vegetarians versus pescetarians who do not. Our findings suggest that the DIQ-D offers a valuable method for identifying psychological correlates of people’s dietary relationships with animal products.     

The whole beast: Consumers’ perceptions of and willingness-to-eat animal by-products

Satisfying the global demand for proteins and avoiding food waste are global challenges. Promoting the consumption of animal by-products might contribute to the solution. The goal of our study was to investigate the role that different factors play for consumers’ willingness to engage with animal by-products. For this, an online survey and experiment with consumers was conducted (N = 260). While food disgust sensitivity works as a barrier, social norms and culinary-based drivers increase people’s willingness to engage with animal by-products. To expand consumer interest, measures could focus on increasing familiarity and reducing negative expectations regarding the sensory qualities of the product.