Studies on thin film based flexible gold electrode arrays for resistivity imaging in electrical impedance tomography

Practical phantoms are essential to assess the electrical impedance tomography (EIT) systems for their validation, calibration and comparison purposes. Metal surface electrodes are generally used in practical phantoms which reduce the SNR of the boundary data due to their design and development errors. Novel flexible and biocompatible gold electrode arrays of high geometric precision are proposed to improve the boundary data quality in EIT. The flexible gold electrode arrays are developed on flexible FR4 sheets using thin film technology and practical gold electrode phantoms are developed with different configurations. Injecting a constant current to the phantom boundary the surface potentials are measured by a LabVIEW based data acquisition system and the resistivity images are reconstructed in EIDORS. Boundary data profile and the resistivity images obtained from the gold electrode phantoms are compared with identical phantoms developed with stainless steel electrodes. Surface profilometry, microscopy and the impedance spectroscopy show that the gold electrode arrays are smooth, geometrically precised and less resistive. Results show that the boundary data accuracy and image quality are improved with gold electrode arrays. Results show that the diametric resistivity plot (DRP), contrast to noise ratio (CNR), percentage of contrast recovery (PCR) and coefficient of contrast (COC) of reconstructed images are improved in gold electrode phantoms.     

Surface electrode switching of a 16-electrode wireless EIT system using RF-based digital data transmission scheme with 8 channel encoder/decoder ICs

A Radio Frequency (RF) based digital data transmission scheme with 8 channel encoder/decoder ICs is proposed for surface electrode switching of a 16-electrode wireless Electrical Impedance Tomography (EIT) system. A RF based wireless digital data transmission module (WDDTM) is developed and the electrode switching of a EIT system is studied by analyzing the boundary data collected and the resistivity images of practical phantoms. An analog multiplexers based electrode switching module (ESM) is developed with analog multiplexers and switched with parallel digital data transmitted by a wireless transmitter/receiver (T_x/R_x) module working with radio frequency technology. Parallel digital bits are generated using NI USB 6251 card working in LabVIEW platform and sent to transmission module to transmit the digital data to the receiver end. The transmitter/receiver module developed is properly interfaced with the personal computer (PC) and practical phantoms through the ESM and USB based DAQ system respectively. It is observed that the digital bits required for multiplexer operation are sequentially generated by the digital output (D/O) ports of the DAQ card. Parallel to serial and serial to parallel conversion of digital data are suitably done by encoder and decoder ICs. Wireless digital data transmission module successfully transmitted and received the parallel data required for switching the current and voltage electrodes wirelessly. 1 mA, 50 kHz sinusoidal constant current is injected at the phantom boundary using common ground current injection protocol and the boundary potentials developed at the voltage electrodes are measured. Resistivity images of the practical phantoms are reconstructed from boundary data using EIDORS. Boundary data and the resistivity images reconstructed from the surface potentials are studied to assess the wireless digital data transmission system. Boundary data profiles of the practical phantom with different configurations show that the multiplexers are operating in the required sequence for common ground current injection protocol. The voltage peaks obtained at the proper positions in the boundary data profiles proved the sequential operation of multiplexers and successful wireless transmission of digital bits. Reconstructed images and their image parameters proved that the boundary data are successfully acquired by the DAQ system which in turn again indicates a sequential and proper operation of multiplexers as well as the successful wireless transmission of digital bits. Hence the developed RF based wireless digital data transmission module (WDDTM) is found suitable for transmitting digital bits required for electrode switching in wireless EIT data acquisition system.     

Resistivity imaging of a reconfigurable phantom with circular inhomogeneities in 2D-electrical impedance tomography

Resistivity imaging of a reconfigurable phantom with circular inhomogeneities is studied with a simple instrumentation and data acquisition system for Electrical Impedance Tomography. The reconfigurable phantom is developed with stainless steel electrodes and a sinusoidal current of constant amplitude is injected to the phantom boundary using opposite current injection protocol. Nylon and polypropylene cylinders with different cross sectional areas are kept inside the phantom and the boundary potential data are collected. The instrumentation and the data acquisition system with a DIP switch-based multiplexer board are used to inject a constant current of desired amplitude and frequency. Voltage data for the first eight current patterns (128 voltage data) are found to be sufficient to reconstruct the inhomogeneities and hence the acquisition time is reduced. Resistivity images are reconstructed from the boundary data for different inhomogeneity positions using EIDORS-2D. The results show that the shape and resistivity of the inhomogeneity as well as the background resistivity are successfully reconstructed from the potential data for single or double inhomogeneity phantoms. The resistivity images obtained from the single and double inhomogeneity phantom clearly indicate the inhomogeneity as the high resistive material. Contrast to noise ratio (CNR) and contrast recovery (CR) of the reconstructed images are found high for the inhomogeneities near all the electrodes arbitrarily chosen for the entire study.     

Numerical estimation of ion transport and electroosmotic flow around a pair of cylindrical electrodes in a microchannel using immersed boundary method

This paper investigates the ion transport and electroosmotically induced flow around the cylindrical electrodes under both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) fields. The Poisson-Nernst-Plank (PNP) equations governing the ion transport around the ideally polarizable electrodes are solved numerically by neglecting the Stern layer effect. The fractional-step (FS) based decoupled solver is used in time integration of the ion-transport equations. A new immersed boundary (IB) methodology is described for imposing no-flux boundary conditions of ion concentration on the electrodes. A fully implicit coupled solver is also developed for calculating the ion transport around a pair of rectangular electrodes. The validity of the decoupled solver is verified by comparing its results with those obtained from the coupled solver. For further confirmation of the validity, the results are also compared with those obtained from the Poisson-Boltzmann model and both results are found to be in excellent agreement. The electroosmotically induced flow field is studied by numerically solving the Stokes equations. The system attains a steady state under DC, where the conduction term of ion transport is balanced by the diffusion term. Until the system attains a steady state for a few ms for the case of DC, fluid flow is induced. The electroosmotic flow under AC is more interesting, in that instantaneous flow oscillates with the frequency double of the applied field and a nonzero steady velocity field persists.     

Ultra-flat coplanar electrodes for controlled electrical contact of molecular films

Reliable measurement of electrical charge transport in molecular layers is a delicate task that requires establishing contacts with electrodes without perturbing the molecular structure of the film. We show how this can be achieved by means of novel device consisting of ultra-flat electrodes separated by insulating material to support the molecular film. We show the fabrication process of these electrodes using a replica technique where gold electrodes are embedded in a silicon oxide film deposited on the angstrom-level flat surface of a silicon wafer. Importantly, the co-planarity of the electrode and oxide areas of the substrate was in the sub-nanometer range. We illustrate the capabilities of the system by mapping the distribution of electrical transport pathways in molecular thin films of self-assembled oligothiophene derivatives using conductive atomic force microscopy. In comparison with traditional bottom contact non-coplanar electrodes, the films deposited on our electrodes exhibited contact resistances lower by a factor of 40 than that of the similar but non-coplanar electrodes.     

Nonlinear image reconstruction using a GA-ECT technique in electrical capacitance tomography

Electrical capacitance tomography (ECT) is a non-invasive measurement technique that estimates the dielectric permittivity distribution of an inhomogeneous object from the boundary potentials at floating electrodes or mutual capacitances. In this paper, a stochastic inverse technique based on genetic algorithm (GA-ECT) is developed, which is adapted to the two different methods, i.e. potential measurement and capacitance measurement. Numerical simulation results are presented to evaluate the inverse technique both for noise free and noisy data and the results show that quantitative image can be reconstructed not only with the low permittivity contrast but also with the high contrast. Furthermore, the influence of a priori knowledge to image reconstruction is discussed.     

基于DSP的新型电参数测量仪设计

针对电机型式试验中的电参数测试,设计了一种基于DSP的新型电参数测量仪。详细论述了整个系统的硬件构架与软件算法,该系统通过采用高精度A/D转换器、DSP芯片以及上位机来完成电压、电流、功率、功率因数及频率的测量与数据的输出显示。对于中小型电机,测量仪既可测三相交流电参数,又可同时测量单相交流与直流电参数;当被测对象为直流有刷电机时,还能测量其转速;测试量程根据输入电流、电压的大小自动进行切换。测试结果表明该系统精度高,运行稳定可靠,能够满足实际需求。     

A near-field scanning microwave microscope for characterization of inhomogeneous photovoltaics

We present a near-field scanning microwave microscope (NSMM) that has been configured for imaging photovoltaic samples. Our system incorporates a Pt-Ir tip inserted into an open-ended coaxial cable to form a weakly coupled resonator, allowing the microwave reflection S(11) signal to be measured across a sample over a frequency range of 1 GHz - 5 GHz. A phase-tuning circuit increased impedance-measurement sensitivity by allowing for tuning of the S(11) minimum down to -78 dBm. A bias-T and preamplifier enabled simultaneous, non-contact measurement of the DC tip-sample current, and a tuning fork feedback system provided simultaneous topographic data. Light-free tuning fork feedback provided characterization of photovoltaic samples both in the dark and under illumination at 405 nm. NSMM measurements were obtained on an inhomogeneous, third-generation Cu(In,Ga)Se(2) (CIGS) sample. The S(11) and DC current features were found to spatially broaden around grain boundaries with the sample under illumination. The broadening is attributed to optically generated charge that becomes trapped and changes the local depletion of the grain boundaries, thereby modifying the local capacitance. Imaging provided by the NSMM offers a new RF methodology to resolve and characterize nanoscale electrical features in photovoltaic materials and devices.     

Permittivity measurements using adjustable microscale electrode gaps between millimeter-sized spherical electrodes

This paper presents a technique for measuring the electrical permittivity of liquids and gases using millimeter-sized spherical electrodes with adjustable microscale separation. This technique eliminates the need for wet calibration by using the precise adjustment of electrode separation to remove the inherent errors of parasitic capacitance and electrode polarization. The spherical electrode geometry also eliminates the need for precise parallel adjustment of electrode separation, and enables small-volume, small-electrode-gap measurements where the applied electric field is constrained in a region of well-defined geometry. By further leveraging the fact that spherical electrodes can be obtained with extremely high diametrical accuracy, absolute permittivity measurement accuracies within 1% of the established values has been demonstrated. Finally, the apparatus also enables the creation of nanometer electrode gaps between macroscopic electrodes with precisely controlled separation, which can be used to study the electrical properties of liquids in highly confined states. The electrode gaps created in this manner can be adjusted from 20 nm to 50 microm, in increments of 0.25 nm.     

Development of standard test methods for evaluating defibrillation recovery characteristics of disposable ECG electrodes

A clinically relevant test for the measurement of defibrillation overload recovery of prefilled disposable ECG electrodes was developed and is proposed for use in an ECG electrode standard under development by AAMI. Defibrillation overload voltages and currents, as well as electrode polarization recovery voltages, were first measured in animal tests on 12 types of electrodes to allow correlation with various bench tests using a capacitor discharge at 10, 200, or 1000 V. Current overloads absorbed by the electrodes under worst conditions in animal tests were in the range of 2 percent of the defibrillation current flowing through the chest. These overloads were absorbed by most Ag-AgCl electrodes without excessive polarization. However, stainless steel, brass, and tin electrodes tended to polarize to levels that would saturate many ECG monitors. A standard bench test using a 200-V 10-muF capacitor was recommended for inclusion in the AAMI standard to determine whether electrodes are acceptable for use during defibrillation.     

阻抗断层成象系统的研究

描述了一阻抗断层成象系统。该系统用安装在有机玻璃筒壁上的３２只电极来注入电流和测量在边界是的电压分布。提出的一种快速成象算法利用所测到的一组电压值来重建筒内物体的断层阻抗分布图象。与其它成象方法相比，阻抗断层成象有着高速、简单、可靠的优点，适合于一些工业过程的动态监控与测量。     

Relationship between velocity profile and distribution of induced potential for an electromagnetic flow meter

This paper investigates the relationship between the induced electric potential and the velocity distribution of the conductive continuous phase in two-phase flows in pipes to which an electromagnetic field is applied, with a view to measuring the continuous phase velocity profile. In order to investigate the characteristics of an electromagnetic flow meter in multiphase flow, an alternating current electromagnetic flow meter was modelled using FEMLAB software. Using the model, electrodes could be placed at any position on the insulating internal surface of the flow meter to satisfy the requirement of measuring the induced potentials at specific locations at the boundary of the flow. The induced electric potential or potential differences from the electrodes were analysed for various simulated flow conditions. The numerical simulation results suggest that electromagnetic flow metering may be an effective novel method for measuring the axial velocity profile of the conducting continuous phase. Furthermore, when combined with the local volume fraction distribution of the continuous phase (obtained, for example, using Electrical Resistance Tomography, also known as ERT), it is expected that the measured continuous phase velocity profile would enable the volumetric flow rate of the continuous phase to be obtained.     

Resonance based DC current sensor

The paper presents design, development and testing of a resonant proximity DC current sensor to measure current in the range of 0-20 mA. The sensor is built using cantilever structure with piezoelectric excitation, sensing and closed loop electronics. The sensor measures the DC current by measuring the shift in resonance frequency of the cantilever beam. The proposed measurement system is novel, simple and accuracy is found to be 1.1% of full scale deflection.     

电磁流量计电场动态平衡过程分析

从电磁流量计电场的基本公式出发，分析了电极截面内电场的建立过程及平衡过程，指出涡电流场在电极截面内分布的动态平衡性。结合相应的边界条件，计算了平衡状态下涡电流场的分布及其对传统电磁流量计及多电极电磁流量计测量值的影响。通过数值计算及定量分析，证明了多电极电磁流量计弦端压差测量方法的有效性。该研究有助于深入分析电磁流量计的工作原理及指导多电极电磁流量计的设计。     

飞行时间质谱和高性能电子学控制技术

飞行时间质量分离器是飞行时间质谱仪的主要组成部分。飞行时间质谱（TOF MS）具有分析质量范围宽、分析速度快、仪器结构简单等优点,但离子初始动能和初始位置容易分散是影响其分辨率的核心因素。本综述根据本课题组多年的研制经验,着重介绍离子束垂直引入方式的反射式有栅网飞行时间质谱的离子光学以及相关电子学控制的核心技术原理。离子光学核心技术涉及到离子加速场和离子反射场的机械加工控制和精密装配控制等,电子学控制核心技术主要包括高压电源和高压脉冲电源的精密制作。     

Fabrication of microchannel with 60 electrodes and resistance measurement

The present study describes the fabrication of a novel microchannel with 60 electrodes and the electrical resistance measurement in different flow types in the microchannel system. This microchannel is designed for ERT application, which has five measurement cross sections and embeds 12 electrodes in each cross section. The microchannel has been successfully fabricated by MEMS processes which are comprised of photolithography of platinum wire on quartz glass layers, compression to fabricate the electrode layers, and micro mechanical processing for the flow groove. After the microchannel fabrication, the connector is constructed in order to avoid unstable measurement condition between the microchannel electrodes and the resistance measurement system. The electrical resistances between the electrode pairs of the microchannel were measured in the case of tap water, particle flow and the separately injected tap water plus particle flow. The electrical resistances are reasonably and stably measured in the microchannel.     

Evaluation of fringe effect of electrical resistance tomography sensor

A conventional electrical resistance tomography (ERT) sensor uses pin electrodes for current injection, and the electric field spreads far beyond the electrode plane, as a result of “soft field” nature. This phenomenon is referred to as “fringe effect” and would cause measurement errors and image distortion. The impact of fringe effect on measurement and reconstructed images depends on the object distributions, the conductivity contrast and others. It is not trivial to evaluate the fringe effect of an ERT sensor and its impact on the measurement and the reconstructed images. In this paper the fringe effect of an ERT sensor is evaluated for central core and off-central core distributions at different axial positions and with different axial dimensions and conductivity contrasts. Then, how to compensate for the fringe effect of the ERT sensor is discussed and a method proposed for improving the measurement accuracy and image reconstruction. Finally, the findings and methodology is verified by experiment.     

A survey of persons certified in clinical engineering and their thoughts on the profession

A questionnaire was sent to 346 persons certified in clinical engineering (CCEs) worldwide. An impressive 72% return revealed the following: 57% of the CCEs are employed by hospitals, 15% by manufacturers, and 12% by academic institutions; 13% are consultants in private practice. Half of them have been with their current employer for over 9 years; their average age is 44.3 years. Thirty-six percent left hospitals for their present jobs. The median salary of the hospital-based CCEs was in the range of +40,000-45,000/year, whereas that of their non-hospital counterparts was in the range of +50,000-55,000/year. Of the nonhospital CCEs, 25% earned over +70,000/year, while only 3% of the hospital CCEs earned salaries in this category. The mean age of the hospitals CCEs is, however, 4.8 years less than that of the non-hospital CCEs. Although some comments on the profession were particularly critical, the respondents believed strongly that clinical engineering remains a viable career choice and has contributed significantly to health care. Underutilization of clinical engineering talents, particularly in the hospital setting, continues to be the predominate concern and greatest source of job-related frustration.     

基于交流场指纹法的金属管道缝隙腐蚀监测方法

场指纹法(FSM)是一种基于电位阵列的金属管道在线腐蚀监测方法。传统的直流FSM(DCFSM)是在管道中通直流电流激励,通过监测电极间的电压变化推算出管道内部腐蚀。DCFSM在缝隙腐蚀监测方面,侧重于监测缝隙的起始及扩展方向。而在深度检测方面,由于DCFSM每个电极对间仅有一个电压值用于求解腐蚀,因而只能使用经验公式,检测精度低。交流场指纹法(ACFSM)核心是将现有的DCFSM的电流激励换为交流,通过变频获得电极对间多个频率点的电压值;利用多个电压值求解缝隙腐蚀深度,提高缝隙腐蚀深度检测精度。ACFSM依据交流电流在管道内分布满足趋肤效应,不同频率的电流在金属中的渗透深度不同,测量电极间的电压也不同。本文在介绍ACFSM原理基础上,创新地提出了一种依据多频电压值求解FC值随频率的变化曲线,利用曲线导数值来计算管道内缝隙腐蚀深度的方法。理论分析和实验表明,本文提出的方法可以精确地检测缝隙腐蚀的深度,弥补了DCFSM在缝隙腐蚀监测精度上的不足。     

Electrohydrodynamic instability of dielectric liquid between concentric circular cylinders subjected to unipolar charge injection

In this paper, we demonstrate instability of dielectric liquid subjected to unipolar charge injection from a pair of cylindrical electrodes at high Scmidt and high Peclet numbers. The transport of charge density in the annulus is governed by the Nernst-Planck equation and the electric potential by the Poisson equation. The fluid flow is governed by the Navier-Stokes equation together with the continuity equation. The base solutions composed of the one-dimensional conduction state are obtained numerically and the temporal growth of their perturbations is determined from the normal-mode instability analysis by using numerical simulations. The critical values of the parameter for the onset of 2D convective motion are obtained and compared well with the results of full-2D calculation. At high injection, the system tends to be more unstable for the inner injection case and more stable for the outer injection case, as the radius of the inner cylinder is decreased; this trend is however reversed at low injection. It turns out that the critical angular wave number obtained from the flatplate case well predicts the one for an annulus for a wide range of the inner cylinder’s radius.