Acceptance of insect-based food in Chile: Evidence from a survey using the entomophagy attitude questionnaire (EAQ)

Research interest in the acceptability of insects as food has dramatically grown in recent years. Investigators have studied the antecedents of people willingness to eat whole insects, processed (non-visible) insects, and insect-fed animals as well. Another important topic is the difference between intention to try insect-based foods once, and readiness to adopt these foods in everyday diet. In 2020, the Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire has been developed as a tool for researchers in this area. It is the only one self-report questionnaire specific to entomophagy, multi-dimensional, and cross-validated in diverse contexts and languages. The current study contributes to further validate this instrument in Spanish, in a novel context such as Chile, and to expand its nomological validity to intention to eat processed insects. In addition, results show that the three components of the EAQ significantly predict participants’ intention to try insect-based foods and, to a lesser extent, intention to add insect-based food in one own’s diet. Limitations of the study, as well as direction for further research are discussed in the paper.     

A self-report measure of attitudes toward the eating of insects: construction and validation of the Entomophagy Attitude Questionnaire

Research has made steps towards the understanding of the main drivers and barriers related to Western consumers’ acceptance of food with ingredients derived from insects. Nevertheless, research has been hampered by the absence of a comprehensive, specific, and validated instrument for measuring consumer attitudes towards entomophagy. The current study presents a new self-report instrument for addressing this issue. The instrument was built upon three conceptual cores, which are reflected in the three factors emerged and tested through factor analyses performed on a representative sample of the Danish population (Study 1: N = 975), and a convenience Italian sample (Study 2: N = 543). The first factor represents the negative evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely connected to disgust. The second factor represents the positive evaluation of direct entomophagy and is closely linked to individuals’ interest to try novel experiences and to eat novel foods. The third factor addresses indirect entomophagy, that is, the attitude towards using insects for feeding other animals that are reared for human consumption. Compared to existing measures of disgust and neophobia, the new instrument performs better in predicting intention in relation to both direct and indirect entomophagy.     

Disgusting or delicious? Examining attitudinal ambivalence towards entomophagy among Danish consumers

Current meat consumption habits will need to change, especially those of Western consumers. The level of meat consumption is unsustainable, and a recent study estimates a necessary reduction of 90% of the current intake. Insects are a promising alternative to existing protein sources, but previous literature has emphasised the initial level of disgust displayed towards insects as a food option. The overall aim of this paper is to understand the attitude of consumers towards eating insects, also termed entomophagy, in order to outline the barriers that prevent adoption and provide insights in order to overcome these. Data were collected through an online questionnaire with a representative sample of Danish consumers (n = 975). Several constructs from the literature were measured: food neophobia, disgust, intention to try and intention to eat regularly. In addition, a new attitude scale was used, that specifically measures the attitude towards entomophagy. A discrete choice experiment was a part of the questionnaire. Using LatentGold 5.1 a segmentation analysis based on the choice experiment was conducted. The influences of intention were analysed using hierarchical regression in SPSS 25. Results of the choice experiment indicate that different segments of consumers of entomophagy exist, and that different segments are interested in different types of insects. Younger consumers and males are more positive towards entomophagy in general and the insect options in the choice experiment. Results of the regression analysis indicate that the attitude toward eating insects is multidimensional and that there seem to be indications of attitude ambivalence in all segments. The interest in entomophagy is important, as it will be a key factor in overcoming the barrier of disgust and turning insects into an acceptable food choice in the Western world.     

The meat of affliction: Insects and the future of food as seen in Expo 2015

BackgroundInsects are touted as a “food of the future” due to their lower environmental footprint relative to traditional livestock, raising interest in entomophagy as a sustainable diet. As such, they appeared at future-food themed Universal Exposition 2015 in Milan, Italy, in which 145 countries presented their nations’ food culture and contributions to innovative food science and technology.Scope and approachThe presence and absence of entomophagy in all the national and themed pavilions of Expo 2015 and the way developing and developed nations differed in their presentation of insects were analyzed as a microcosm of global attitudes to insects as food and the barriers towards its wider adoption.Key findings and conclusionsOnly Belgium and the Netherlands presented insects in their vision for the future, and only Angola as traditional cuisine. Nations noted for active entomophagy today such as Mexico and Thailand did not mention insects at all. Efforts to serve insects faced obstacles in Italian import restrictions, which changed by the event's end. Expo 2015 illustrates challenges in promoting global entomophagy, including the need for improved rearing methods, the risks of associating insects with starvation scenarios, and the preference of Westerners for processed insects over whole.     

We will eat disgusting foods together – Evidence of the normative basis of Western entomophagy-disgust from an insect tasting

Insects are a highly sustainable and nutritious source of protein, and, thus, incorporating insects in to Western food culture is one way to address major global challenges like global warming and deforestation. Consumer studies show, however, that Westerners’ willingness to eat insect-containing food is low. One formidable barrier is the perception that insects are disgusting, and it is generally believed that this insect-disgust is driven by a fear of contamination and disease. Another barrier is the lack of social norms related to entomophagy in the West. In the present study, we tested effects of fear of contamination and perceived social eating norm with a survey and a tasting session administered to a Danish college sample (N = 189). Correlation analyses and multivariate regression analyses revealed that selfreported trait-level Pathogen Disgust and Perceived Infectability did not consistently predict insect eating disgust, willingness to eat insects, or actual insect tasting behavior in the tasting session. In contrast, perceived insect eating norm emerged as a significant predictor of insect tasting behavior. These findings suggest that perceived social norms play a substantial role in Westerners’ (un)willingness to eat insects. The result gives reason for optimism for aspirations of introducing insects in Western food diet and point to avenues for harnessing social norms in marketing efforts.     

Consumer acceptance of insect-based alternative meat products in Western countries

During the past few years, entomophagy has been increasing in significance. As insects are generally high in protein, they are principally considered as meat substitutes. Nevertheless, in Western countries, meat substitute consumption is actually very low, principally due to food neophobia and poor sensory qualities in comparison with meat. In insect particular case, food neophobia is clearly high. To reduce insect food neophobia, previous studies suggest to insert invisible insect in food preparation and/or to associate them with known flavors. In this study, a survey on entomophagy perception and hedonic tests were realized to assess the level of sensory-liking of hybrid insect-based burgers (beef, lentils, mealworms and beef, mealworms and lentils). Participants’ overall liking of the four burgers differed between genders and was influenced by burger appearance and taste. Women clearly preferred beef burger appearance, whereas men preferred the appearance of beef and insect-based burgers. Concerning insect-based burger taste, participants (men and women) rated it intermediately, between that of the beef and lentil burger, with a preference for the mealworm and beef burger. Results also showed that people with previous entomophagy experience was limited but that they gave globally higher ratings to all preparations. In conclusion, insect tasting sessions are important to decrease food neophobia, as they encourage people to “take the first step” and become acquainted with entomophagy. Nevertheless, insect integration into Western food culture will involve a transitional phase with minced or powdered insects incorporated into ready-to-eat preparations, as people are not ready to add insects to their diets in “whole form.”     

Food of the Future? Consumer Responses to the Idea of 3D-Printed Meat and Insect-Based Foods

3D printing technologies are beginning to be employed to fabricate new food products. One of the more unusual and potentially controversial adoptions of this novel food technology involves the use of laboratory-cultured meat or insect-based ingredients to support ethical consumption, food security, and environmental sustainability initiatives. In this article, we discuss findings from our study involving an online discussion group with Australian participants concerning their attitudes to a novel technology that combined new food processing and presentation devices (the 3D printer) with a range of ingredients. The participants recognized the potential benefits of insect- and cultured-meat-based printed food for society. However, their own priorities for food consumption choices centered more on the qualities of health, taste, and naturalness. We found that overall, few participants articulated interest in or support for consuming or serving 3D-printed food products made from cultured meat or insects. Most expressed their disquiet about the degree of processing cultured meat undergoes. It was considered to be “unnatural,” and therefore not fresh, potentially harmful, lacking taste or not nutritious. Most of the participants also expressed antipathy towards the idea of eating printed products containing insects. While such products were considered more “natural” and nutritious than cultured meat, the idea of eating insects was predominantly greeted with disgust. As these findings suggest, plans to use 3D printing technologies to render ingredients such as cultured meat and insects more acceptable and appealing to consumers in countries like Australia have major cultural barriers to overcome.     

Americans’ acceptance of black soldier fly larvae as food for themselves,their dogs,and farmed animals

This paper investigates consumer attitudes towards Hermetia illucens larvae (aka Black Soldier Fly Larvae; BSFL) and other insects in two forms: dried whole insects and insect flour incorporated into a familiar food. In two studies, we assessed the willingness of American adults to try eating them directly, eating animals fed on them, and feeding them to their pet dog. Participants were significantly more willing to try food made with insect flour than to eat the whole insects, with the same pattern emerging for acceptability of insects in dog food. BSFL were roughly as acceptable as other insects (crickets, mealworms, ants). On average, participants had negative attitudes towards eating BSFL on their own, but the majority were willing to try foods containing BSFL in the form of insect flour or rendered fat. There are also suggestions in the data that indirect routes of consumption (e.g., consuming animals that have eaten insects, or feeding insects to one’s dog) are more acceptable than direct consumption. Our results suggest that BSFL are relatively well-received by consumers and are a promising alternative to the farmed animals more commonly used in pet food.     

Nutritional composition and safety aspects of edible insects

Insects, a traditional food in many parts of the world, are highly nutritious and especially rich in proteins and thus represent a potential food and protein source. A compilation of 236 nutrient compositions in addition to amino acid spectra and fatty acid compositions as well as mineral and vitamin contents of various edible insects as derived from literature is given and the risks and benefits of entomophagy are discussed. Although the data were subject to a large variation, it could be concluded that many edible insects provide satisfactorily with energy and protein, meet amino acid requirements for humans, are high in MUFA and/or PUFA, and rich in several micronutrients such as copper, iron, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, selenium, and zinc as well as riboflavin, pantothenic acid, biotin, and in some cases folic acid. Liabilities of entomophagy include the possible content of allergenic and toxic substances as well as antinutrients and the presence of pathogens. More data are required for a thorough assessment of the nutritional potential of edible insects and proper processing and decontamination methods have to be developed to ensure food safety.     

Which insect species can best be proposed for human consumption?

Edible insects have become popular in the past few years not only in the scientific literature but in other media as well. One of the major advantages of entomophagy (eating insects) is said to be the great nutritional composition. Many sources report that insects (generally) have better nutritional characteristics than traditional protein sources. In our research, we aim to give a complete picture of the nutritional profile of insects using a multicriteria optimization method, sum of ranking differences. The materials we used are published results of different authors from the past few years. The proximate analysis tells that insects generally have a better nutritional profile than other meats. The situation is a bit different in the case of mineral content; hence some vegetables have excellent mineral sources but waxworm larvae were ranked in the first three. Additionally, waxworm larvae have the most similar amino acid pattern to the FAO recommendation for adults. Earthworm, house cricket, and mealworm larvae showed the most promising vitamin content; however, huge differences were observed between the developmental stages of insects. A detailed analysis of these differences on the example of mealworms showed that adults may present a better option from the nutritional point of view. Same measurements conducted by different authors on the same species show considerable differences; hence the comparison of the results of different publications is dubious and should be handled with care. Based on our results, insects have a promising nutritional profile and may become part of many food products in the future. Present status of knowledge allows to conclude; which insect is best suitable for human consumption.     

Insects as food: Exploring cultural exposure and individual experience as determinants of acceptance

Edible insects have attracted much Western interest in recent years due to their nutritional and environmental advantages. Consumers, however, remain aversive towards a class of items that is not traditionally considered to be food. While the focus is often on the Western disgust, looking at consumer perceptions in a culture that considers insects to be delicious could provide new insights into the psychological and cultural mechanisms that underpin these evaluations. This cross-cultural qualitative study explores how cultural exposure and individual experience contribute towards the contrasting evaluations of insects as food by those who do and do not eat them. Eight focus groups were conducted across two cultures—four in Thailand where insects are part of the local food culture, and four in the Netherlands where insects are generally not recognised as food. Within these cultures, two groups consisted of individuals who have experience with eating insects, and two groups consisted of individuals with little or no experience with insects as food. Cultural exposure created expectations of which species were more appropriate to eat and how they should be prepared, whereas individual experiences determined whether judgements were made based on memories of past eating experiences or based on the visual properties and item associations. This study provides insights into the acceptance and rejection factors of unfamiliar food items and identifies the factors to be considered when introducing novel food items that are not yet culturally acceptable as food.     

Acceptance of insects as food in Germany: Is it about sensation seeking,sustainability consciousness,or food disgust?

This study examines the acceptance of insect-based foods by consumers in Germany. The nationwide online survey (N = 516) focused on which factors have the greatest influence on the willingness to consume an insect burger and buffalo worms. In addition to sociodemographic factors, meat consumption and the “classical” variables in the field of entomophagy (familiarity, previous insect consumption, food technology neophobia and food neophobia), the study focuses in particular on the previously unconsidered variables sensation seeking, sustainability consciousness and food disgust. A total of 41.9% of the participants were willing to consume an insect burger. In contrast, only 15.9% of the participants were willing to consume the buffalo worms – a principal ingredient of the insect burger. Hierarchical multiple regressions showed that food disgust was the most important predictor for the acceptance of edible insects, followed by previous insect consumption, food neophobia, gender, sensation seeking and food technology neophobia. The high influence of food disgust shows that not only the explicit disgust for insects is decisive for the consumer readiness of insect-based products, but also the domain specific disgust for food. Despite the strong sustainability awareness of our participants, and contrary to our expectations, sustainability consciousness did not prove to be a significant predictor for the willingness to consume insects. Implications for marketing strategies and educational interventions will be discussed.     

Ugly but tasty: A systematic review of possible human and animal health risks related to entomophagy

Background: According to many recent studies, the use of insects as food seems to be convenient, sustainable, economical and healthy. The objective of this study is to analyze the possible effects of insect consumption on human and animal health. Methods: A systematic review of the literature was performed using the PubMed, Scopus and CAB databases. Results: Of the 6026 items initially retrieved, 70 were eligible for inclusion; 40 studies analyzed the use of insects in human foods or drugs, while 30 analyzed the use of insects in animal feed. In humans, the most commonly analyzed risks are nutrient malabsorption, growth alteration, chemical and microbiological contamination and allergy risk. Studies of animals focus on growth alteration, nutrient malabsorption and hematic and qualitative meat alteration. Conclusion: In recent years, researchers have shifted their focus from the possible use of edible insects in animal feed to their use as possible nutrient sources for humans. The results suggest that, if properly treated and preserved, products derived from insects are safe and efficient sources of nutrients for animals. Further studies are needed to evaluate the possible effects of prolonged insect consumption on human health.     

Consumer attitudes toward the use of gene technology in tomato production

Survey researches indicated that gene technology applied to the food sector is considered less useful than other applications. Recently, theoretical approaches, such as the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA) and the Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB), have been applied to assess attitudes towards using gene technology in food production. A study (n=1000 subjects), aimed at assessing beliefs and attitudes towards eating tomatoes produced by gene technology in the near future, was carried out in Italy. The basic frame of reference for design and analysis was the TRA. Measures of perceived behavioural control and moral obligation components were included into the model. Most of the subjects of the sample tended to hold negative attitudes towards eating tomatoes produced by gene technology. Also, it was found that there was a strong predictive link between beliefs and attitudes and between perceived behavioural control and intention of eating tomatoes produced by gene technology. The measure of moral obligation proved to be a no-significant predictor of intention. The Structural Equation Model was used for testing the expanded model. The finding of the application of the Structural Equation Model confirmed the contribution of more sophisticated statistical techniques for testing the basic framework of the TRA models in the context of food choices.     

Eating behaviour explains differences between individuals in dynamic texture perception of sausages

Texture perception of foods has been demonstrated to be influenced by age, dental health and oral processing behaviour. Eating duration is a significant factor contributing to and determining food oral processing behaviour. The influence of eating duration on dynamic texture perception, oral processing behaviour and properties of the food bolus have not been investigated extensively. The aims of this study are (i) to determine the influence of naturally preferred eating duration on dynamic texture perception of sausages and (ii) to explain differences in dynamic texture perception between short and long duration eaters by chewing behaviour and bolus properties. Two groups of subjects were selected based on their natural eating duration for a controlled portion size of two sausages. The group of “long duration eaters” (n = 11) took on average twice as long to consume a piece of sausage compared to the group of “short duration eaters” (n = 12). Independent of eating duration, short and long eating duration subjects chewed sausages with the same chewing frequency (p = 0.57) and muscle effort rate (p = 0.15) during oral processing. Total muscle effort and total number of chews were significantly higher (p < 0.05 for both) for long duration eaters mainly due to the longer eating time compared to short duration eaters. Bolus properties showed that short duration eaters did not break down the boli as much as long duration eaters resulting in fewer (p < 0.001) and larger (p < 0.05) sausage bolus fragments, firmer (p < 0.001) and less adhesive (p < 0.001) boli with lower fat content (p < 0.05) and less saliva incorporation (p < 0.001) at swallow compared to the bolus properties of long duration eaters. These differences in bolus properties influenced dynamic texture perception of the sausages as the bolus of short duration eaters revealed different properties than the bolus of long duration eaters. Temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) showed that short and long duration eaters perceived the same sausage similarly in the early stages of oral processing, but started to perceive the texture of the same sausage differently from the middle of oral processing towards the end. We conclude that short duration eaters did not compensate for their shorter eating duration by chewing more efficiently but were comfortable swallowing a less broken down bolus than long duration eaters. Moreover, we conclude that differences in eating behaviour between subjects can lead to differences in bolus properties of sausages causing differences in dynamic texture perception of the same sausage.     

The insectivore’s dilemma,and how to take the West out of it

A number of health and agricultural organizations have been encouraging Westerners to integrate insects into their diet, without success. Appealing to consumer’s reason and responsibility, as they do, is likely to reinforce a dilemma in the mind of consumers: many know that they can, in principle, eat insects, and perhaps that they should eat some, but very few are willing to eat them. Here we argue that current strategies are on the wrong track in identifying the key obstacle to overcome as a question of the negative representation of insects. Decades of laboratory research, as well as years of experience in gastronomy, suggest that people’s food choices are relatively immune to rational changes of representation, and instead tend to be driven by taste preferences and exposure. Here we suggest an alternative sensorially-driven strategy, which stands a much greater chance of making people eat insects on a regular basis. The turn – or better said return – to entomophagy in this sense, needs to be driven by a psychologically realistic motivation and gastronomic interest.     

The effect of brand names on flavor perception and consumption in restrained and unrestrained eaters

In an increasingly obesogenic food environment, making healthful food decisions can be difficult. Because consumers are often bombarded with excessive information about foods they often rely on simple heuristics to decide whether to purchase or consume a food. In the present study we tested females who were either restrained (n = 33) or unrestrained (n = 33) to determine whether their sensory perception and intake of a food would be affected by brand information. Participants were provided with in an ad libitum snack of cookies which was labeled with a brand typically associated with healthful snacks or a brand associated with unhealthful snacks. Results indicated that all participants rated the cookies with the healthful brand label as more satisfying and as having a better taste and flavor. Furthermore, restrained eaters consumed more of the healthful brand than the unhealthful brand, whereas unrestrained eaters’ consumption did not differ. Thus it appears that food-related beliefs do influence consumers’ intake, especially that of restrained eaters. Further research is warranted to investigate these beliefs in order to improve recommendations for healthful eating in a society facing an increased prevalence of overeating and obesity.     

Product appropriateness,willingness to try and perceived risks of foods containing insect protein powder: A survey of U.S. consumers

As a sustainable alternative to livestock consumption, insect protein has applications beyond meat substitution. However, strategies to normalise entomophagy in the United States have been less explored than in Europe. Two online surveys (N = 1005 U.S. consumers) identified the most appropriate products, from a list of 30, for insect protein powder incorporation by evaluating willingness to try (WTT). Consumers reported perceived risks for negative WTT, and the effect of entomophagy benefit information (EBI) on WTT was measured. Overall, 72% of consumers were willing to consume at least one insect-containing product. The three most appropriate products were protein/energy bars, chips/snack crackers and protein shakes. Bakery/cereal products garnered positive WTT by >54% of consumers, followed by snacks/candy (53%). Unfamiliarity with insects as food was the most cited risk. EBI presentation significantly increased (α < 0.05, McNemar’s test) positive WTT for all products. Once unfamiliarity is overcome through trial, negative emotions and concerns about sensory quality can be addressed.     

The Value of Indirect Measures for Assessing Food Preferences in Abnormal Eating

Indirect measures have been used for the assessment of food preferences. These measures are indirect in the sense that the researcher does not ask a participant directly for his food preference, but derives his preference from a behavior. Typically, the affective priming paradigm and the Implicit Association Test have been used. The relevant processes in these paradigms are relatively automatic. One of the advantages of these paradigms is that responses are less likely to be influenced by socially desirable response tendencies and do not rely on the participant’s introspection. This paper provides an overview of research about relatively automatic associations with food in general and specifically for anorexia nervosa patients, dieters, and obese people. Multiple studies suggest that these paradigms can uncover food likes and dislikes. In most studies, no differences in food preferences were found between obese and lean people, or between restrained and unrestrained eaters. Possibly there simply are no group differences in automatic food associations. Alternatively, the employed indirect measures are not sensitive enough to detect truly existent differences. Interestingly, it was found that anorexia nervosa patients displayed a reduced sensitivity to the palatability of foods. Another interesting finding is that the presence of an immediate food related context influenced the automatic food associations. For now, the use of indirect measures in explaining differences between obese and lean people, and restrained and unrestrained eaters, does not seem a very viable approach. It might be for a clinical disorder such as anorexia nervosa.     

The use of edible insect proteins in food: Challenges and issues related to their functional properties

Over the past decade, the potential of edible insects as a novel ingredient in high value-added products has been investigated to find alternatives to conventional protein sources that are expensive, over-exploited and harmful to the environment. This review assesses the state of insects as an alternative protein source from production to consumption. More specifically, this review details the conventional procedures related to the production of insect flours as well as insect-derived ingredients such as protein concentrates and isolates. As a source of alternative protein in food ingredient formulations, the available data on the functionalities of edible insect ingredients is also examined and compared to conventional animal- and plant-based protein sources. Finally, the major challenges facing entomophagy in the mainstream food industry are explored. This review highlights the fact that insect proteins can serve as functional ingredients in food preparation. However, additional comparative studies are required to assess the functionality of various insect proteins compared to conventional proteins, regardless of processing method. To be incorporated into large scale industries, more research is needed to optimize processing methods to obtain the best compromise between cost-effectiveness, functionality, tastiness and sustainability, while ensuring consumer safety.