Characterisation of white tea – Comparison to green and black tea

An overview is given on the manufacture of the different types of tea along with the most important phenolics present in tea and methods of analysis. Compositional data are presented for green, white and black teas. A differentiation of green and black tea by using the ratio between total phenolics and sum of the major catechins seems to be feasible. For white tea there is no general accepted definition. Possible approaches are geographic origin, the botanical variety and the manufacture or the appearance. The differentiation between green and white teas by the ratio mentioned above is not possible. An erratum to this article is available at .     

Maximum Residue Levels of Veterinary Medicines in Relation to Food Safety: European Community Legislation and Ethical Aspects

Residues of veterinary medicinal products, as defined by the European Union, are “pharmacologically active substances (whether active principles, excipients or degradation products) and their metabolites which remain in foodstuffs obtained from animals to which the veterinary medicinal product in question has been administered”. The policy for Maximum Residue Limit (MRL) setting is focused on a high protection level for the consumer. MRL can be set when risk assessment shows no risk for the consumer. An MRL is the maximum concentration of residue following administration of a veterinary medicine which is legally permitted or acceptable in food under the laws of the EU. The responsibility for keeping residues under the MRL lies with veterinarians and farmers, using licensed animal medicines. Violative residues of veterinary medicines can occur as a result of improper use of a licensed product or through the illegal use of an unlicensed substance. Consequently, it became clear that prudent use of not only antimicrobials used for treatment and prevention of disease but also those used for growth promotion (e.g. β-agonists or steroid hormones) in farm animals is an integral part of good veterinary practice. In the following an overview of the European Community legislation on the studies required for residues is given. Ethical aspects are also considered. Received: March 6, 2008; accepted: March 17, 2008     

欧盟动物福利政策的发展及对我国的启示

随着公众对动物福利的关注度不断上升,近年来欧洲各国出台了一系列改善动物福利的政策。本文介绍了欧盟动物福利政策的发展历程,讨论了动物福利对市场、政策制定与全球国际贸易的影响,阐述与评价了可供选择的动物福利政策,并以欧盟为鉴,对我国动物福利政策的发展提出了政策建议。     

Microbiological Attributes of Turkish Butters Sold Under Market Conditions

In this study, microbiological quality of 45 butter samples sold under market conditions at Manisa (Turkey) was investigated. Total coliform, total fecal coliform, Escherichia coli and yeast and mould counts were found between < 1.0 – > 3.15 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1, < 1.0 – > 3.15 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1, < 1.0 – > 3.15 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1 and < 1.0 – > 6.62 log₁₀ cfu.g^-1 respectively. Only in one sample Salmonella was detected. Staphylococcus aureus was not detected in any of the samples. To that extent butters sold under market conditions in Manisa have high coliform, yeast and mould contamination. Received: April 29, 2008; received in revised form: May 28, 2008; accepted: June 3, 2008     

Untersuchungen zur aktuellen Belastung von Tiermehlen mit Tetracyclinen

Zusammenfassung:  Fleischmehle aus Herstellungsbetrieben in Deutschland, in denen die Rohstoffe entsprechend den spezifischen Anforderungen der Verordnung (EG) 1774/2002, Artikel 19 („Inverkehrbringen und Ausfuhr von verarbeitetem tierischem Eiwei? und anderen verarbeiteten Erzeugnissen, die als Futtermittel-Ausgangserzeugnisse verwendet werden k?nnen“) verarbeitet wurden, wurden im Rahmen dieser Studie einer qualitativen und quantitativen Untersuchung auf Tetracycline mittels LC-ESI-MS-MS unterzogen. Insgesamt wurden 108 Proben untersucht, davon 18 Knochenmehle, 16 Griebenmehle, 15 Geflügelmehle, 10 Geflügelfleischmehle und 49 Fleischknochenmehle. In den untersuchten Proben konnten Tetracycline nachgewiesen werden. Im Einzelnen wurden Oxytetracyclin sowie Tetracyclin in allen 108 Proben und Chlortetracyclin in 91 von 108 untersuchten Proben nachgewiesen. Die maximalen Gesamt-Tetracyclin-Gehalte betrugen 828,1 μg/kg in Knochenmehlen, 317,1 μg/kg in Griebenmehlen, 606,9 μg/kg in Geflügelmehlen, 267,1 μg/kg in Geflügelfleischmehlen und 1524,7 μg/kg in Fleischknochenmehlen. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die rechtlich vorgeschriebene Erhitzung in Verarbeitungsanlagen nicht ausreichend ist, um einen Abbau von Tetracyclin-Rückst?nden sicherzustellen. Es muss angenommen werden, dass es nicht m?glich sein wird, Tetracyclin-freie Tiermehle herzustellen. Die m?glichen Folgen dieser Kontamination mit Tetracyclinen werden diskutiert.

---

In this study, meat meals produced in Germany according to article 19 of regulation EC 1774/2002 (“Placing on the market and export of processed animal protein and other processed products that could be used as feed material”) were analysed qualitatively and quantitatively for tetracyclines using LC-ESI-MS-MS. A total of 108 samples was analysed: 18 bone meals, 16 greave meals, 15 poultry meals, 10 poultry meat meals and 49 meat and bone meal samples. Tetracycline derivatives were found in all analysed samples. Oxytetracycline and tetracycline were found in 108 samples, chlortetracycline was detected in 91 of 108 samples. The highest total tetracycline content was 828.1 μg/kg in bone meals, 317.1 μg/kg in greave meals, 606.9 μg/kg in poultry meals, 267.1 μg/kg in poultry meat meals and 1524.7 μg/kg in meat and bone meals, respectively. The results of this study showed that the compulsory heating step actually used in processing plants does not result in a degradation of tetracyclines. From these results it does not seem possible to produce tetracycline free animal meals from contaminated raw materials. Further, the possible implications of the findings are discussed.

Eingegangen: 14. M?rz 2008     

Nanoparticles: Aspects of Safety and Risk Management

Synthetic nanoparticles are within the scope of the existing chemical law in Europe (REACH). However, the present knowledge is not yet sufficient for the elaboration of nanospecific regulations. Many projects with the aim of completing the necessary scientific and technical basis for the assessment of nanotechnology related risks are under way. Under these circumstances voluntary safety standards by authorities or industry constitute an appropriate tool for the protection of human health and the environment. Received: June 2, 2008; accepted: June 3, 2008.     

Quantitative Determination of Isoflavones in Soy Based Nutritional Supplements by High-Performance Liquid Chromatography

An increasing number of nutritional supplements contain phytoestrogens, in particular isoflavones, which potentially alleviate climacteric complaints. Intention of the present study was the qualitative and quantitative determination of isoflavones in soy based nutritional supplements in order to compare the actual content with the labeling of these products. For the analysis high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with photo diode array (PDA) detection was used. The amount of isoflavones was determined via external calibration functions. Our analyses revealed certain variations in the isoflavone content of soy based nutritional supplements, with regard to the individual and the total amount. Furthermore, the total amount of isoflavones per serving unit in some products was higher than declared on the labeling, although only the major isoflavones were taken into account. This study shows that there is the necessity to clearly specify the isoflavone composition on the labeling and - due to safety aspects - to standardize and control the isoflavone content.

---

Zusammenfassung:  Nahrungserg?nzungsmittel mit Zusatz von Soja werden vermehrt als “Alternative” zur klassischen Hormonersatztherapie für Frauen im Klimakterium angeboten. Diese Pr?parate enthalten Isoflavone, welche zu den Phytoestrogenen z?hlen und eine estrogene Wirkung aufweisen. Die in Sojabohnen enthaltenen Isoflavone sollen unter anderem klimakterische Beschwerden wie z.B. Hitzewallungen oder Tachykardie lindern. In der vorliegenden Studie wird eine Methode beschrieben, mit der aus Nahrungserg?nzungsmitteln mit Zusatz von Soja-Extrakten der Gehalt an Isoflavonen bestimmt werden kann. Dazu wurde eine HPLC-Methode mitDioden-Array-Detektion entwickelt, mit welcher die Quantifizierung der in Soja vorliegenden Isoflavone über externe Kalibrierfunktionen erfolgen kann. Damit war es m?glich, die vom Hersteller gemachten Angaben bezüglich der Isoflavongehalte zu überprüfen. Unsere Untersuchungen wiesen deutliche Unterschiede sowohl im Gesamtgehalt an Isoflavonen als auch in der individuellen Zusammensetzung der einzelnen Produkte auf. In einigen F?llen war der Isoflavongehalt in einigen Produkten pro Verzehrseinheit deutlich h?her als vom Hersteller angegeben. Unsere Untersuchungen belegen die Notwendigkeit im Sinne des Verbraucherschutzes, die Isoflavongehalte in Nahrungserg?nzungsmitteln klar zu spezifizieren und zu deklarieren.

---

Received: January 9. 2008; accepted: February 19. 2008     

Green Tea Polyphenolic Compounds and Human Health

Polyphenols are a structurally diverse group of compounds that occur widely throughout the plant kingdom. Polyphenolic compounds are ubiquitous in all plant organs and are, therefore, an integral part of the human diet. Recent interest in food phenolics has increased greatly because of the antioxidant and free radical-scavenging abilities associated with some phenolics and their potential effects on human health. Most of the polyphenols in green tea are commonly known as catechins. The regular consumption of green tea is related to benefits in some diseases as atherosclerosis and cancer. Although consumption of dietary polyphenols such as flavonoids has been suggested to have beneficial biological effects, there are considerable evidences to suggest that such compounds are not without risk of adverse effects. Received: July 23, 2007; accepted August 8, 2007     

Pharmakodynamische und pharmakokinetische Grundlagen der Mastitistherapie

Zusammenfassung:  Bei der Behandlung von Mastitiden steht die Anwendung von lokal oder systemisch verabreichten Antibiotika im Vordergrund. Bei der systemischen Anwendung sind der Bioverfügbarkeit und der Verteilung des Stoffes in die Milchdrüse besonderes Augenmerk zu schenken. Neben der Molekülgrü?e und dem Ausma? der Proteinbindung sind dabei die Lipophilie und der Ionisationsgrad des Arzneistoffs bestimmend. Schwache S?uren, wie beispielsweise β-Lactam-Antibiotika, liegen im Blutplasma überwiegend ionisiert vor; sie k?nnen die Blut-Milch-Schranke daher im Gegensatz zu schwachen Basen nur in ?u?erst geringem Umfang passieren. Bei der intramamm?ren Applikation muss gew?hrleistet werden, dass sich das Antibiotikum in ausreichendem Umfang im Drüsengewebe verteilt. Die Pr?parate sind in den meisten F?llen wie auch Formulierungen mit Langzeitwirkung beim Trockenstellen ?lige Suspensionen.

---

The therapy of bovine mastitis usually relies on antibiotics, administered either systemically or by the intramammary route. A key factor in the success of systemic treatment is the bioavailability of the chemotherapeutic agent and the distribution into the mammary gland. Apart from molecular size and protein binding capacity, the lipid solubility of the active principle and its degree of ionisation play a major role. Weak acids (like β-lactams) are present in the ionised form in the blood and their ability to pass through the blood/udder barrier is very limited. The opposite is true for weak bases. In the case of intramammary administration the main consideration is that the substance is distributed sufficiently into the glandular tissue. This is why drugs for topical administration are usually formulated in an oily base, which is also suitable for long-term prophylaxis at drying off.

Eingegangen: 6. M?rz 2008; angenommen: 17. M?rz 2008     

Opinion: Improved Food Safety Requires Integration of Pest, Plant and Pesticide Interactions

In the real world, there is an interaction between pest, plant and pesticide that greatly affects the kinds and amounts of potentially toxic and allergenic chemicals that we eat. These interactions are virtually ignored in food safety regulation. Exposure to potentially toxic chemicals from crop foods comes from three principle sources: fungal toxin contamination, natural toxicants and allergens of the plant itself (‘self-defense’ chemistries), and from synthetic pesticide residues. To be effective, these ‘self-defense’ chemistries are often potent toxicants. When tested similarly to synthetic pesticides, plant self-defense chemistries are often toxic to genes, cause cancer, cause reproductive problems, cause birth defects, and the like. Our exposure to self-defense chemicals and allergenic proteins of plants is variable, and depends on growing conditions, which kind of crop, which variety of crop, selection for natural resistance to insects and fungi, the plant’s dynamic response to environmental stressors including insects and fungi, and possible mitigation of insect and fungal stress by use of synthetic or biotechnology pesticides, and post-harvest management. The ratio of self-defense chemistries to synthetic pesticides in our diets has been estimated at greater than 10,000 to 1 (Ames, 1983; Beier and Nigg, 2001). Almost the entire focus of society and regulatory agencies is to manage the 1 part in 10000. Obviously, this partitioning of resources is not scientifically rational. The plant world is interactive, and this dynamic must be managed to improve food safety. Content for this article is largely from three previous publications of the author: [1] Mattsson, J. L. (2007) Mixtures in the real world: The importance of plant self-defense toxicants, mycotoxins, and the human diet. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 223:125 – 132; [2] Mattsson, J. L. (2006) Spray more for safer food. New Zealand Geographic 77:12 – 16; [3] Mattsson, J. L. (2000) Do pesticides reduce our total exposure to food borne toxicants? Neurotoxicol 21:195 – 202. J. L. Mattsson: Potential conflict of interest: Previously employed by Dow AgroSciences LLC and The Dow Chemical Company. Received: March 12, 2008; accepted: March 14, 2008     

Die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung von Kaffee, Tee und Kakao – eine Übersicht für Deutschland

Zusammenfassung:  Um Auskunft über die wirtschaftliche Bedeutung von Kaffee, Tee und Kakao zu geben, werden in diesem Mini-Review u.a. aktuelle Angaben zur weltweiten Produktion dieser drei „Exoten“ gemacht (Menge und Herkunftsl?nder), die jeweiligen Import-Anteile der Produktionsl?nder nach Deutschland (bzw. in die EU) benannt, der Pro-Kopf-Verbrauch an Kaffee, Tee oder Kakao in Deutschland mit dem anderer Staaten verglichen und – sofern m?glich – Einblick gegeben in die Entwicklung von weltweitem Angebot und Nachfrage und die damit verbundene Preisentwicklung in den vergangenen Jahren. Eingegangen: 2. Juli 2007     

Cross border Classical Swine Fever control: Improving Dutch and German crisis management systems by an integrated public-private approach

The objective of this research approach is to analyse in which ways crisis management measures against Classical Swine Fever (CSF) can be improved by a public private cross border model. A core activity contains the analysis of information and communication systems: In a case study it has been empirically analysed if a sufficient supply of public and private information enables crisis managers at both sides of the Dutch-German border area to take decisions about CSF control more efficient. At the end of this approach a new crisis management model had been developed. One of the most important aspects thereby is the assessment of data: (1) within private quality management systems in normal times according to the benefit for public management tasks in times of crisis and (2) within public crisis management systems according to the benefit for cross-border CSF-control activities. To this effect two different methodological approaches have been combined within the model: (1) a method to identify and illustrate public actors and their options in crisis management decision making and (2) a system of communication and information exchange between public and private as well as Dutch and German actors (engage& exchange model) which permit to collect and to evaluate data in addition for a predefined time period are activated. Received: September 30, 2008; accepted: October 1, 2008     

In vitro influence of D/L-lactic acid, sodium chloride and sodium nitrite on the infectivity of feline calicivirus and of ECHO virus as potential surrogates for foodborne viruses

The importance of foodborne viruses is increasingly recognized. Thus, the effect of commonly used food preservation methods on the infectivity of viruses is questioned. In this context, we investigated the antiviral properties of d,l-lactic acid, sodium chloride and sodium nitrite by in vitro studies. Two model viruses, Feline Calicivirus (FCV) and Enteric Cytophatic Human Orphan (ECHO) virus, were chosen for this study simulating important foodborne viruses (human noroviruses (NoV) and human enteroviruses, resp.). The model viruses were exposed to different solutions of d,l-lactic acid (0.1-0.4% w/w, pH 6.0-3.2), of sodium chloride (2-20%, w/v) and of sodium nitrite (100, 150 and 200 ppm) at 4 and 20 °C for a maximum of 7 days. Different results were obtained for the two viruses. ECHO virus was highly stable against d,l-lactic acid and sodium chloride when tested under all conditions. On the contrary, FCV showed less stability but was not effectively inactivated when exposed to low acid and high salt conditions at refrigeration temperatures (4 °C). FCV titers decreased more markedly at 20 °C than 4 °C in all experiments. Sodium nitrite did not show any effect on the inactivation of both viruses. The results indicate that acidification, salting or curing maybe insufficient for effective inactivation of foodborne viruses such as NoV or human enteroviruses during food processing. Thus, application of higher temperature during fermentation and ripening processes maybe more effective toward the inactivation kinetics of less stable viruses. Nevertheless, more studies are needed to examine the antiviral properties of these preserving agents on virus survival and inactivation kinetics in the complex food matrix.     

Control of Some Filamentous Fungi and Yeasts by Dehydrated Allium Extracts

The antifungal activities of dehydrated garlic (Allium sativum L.), onion (Allium cepa L.) and leek (Allium porrum L.) against Aspergillus niger, Fusarium oxysporum, Candida albicans ATCC 10231 and Metschnikowia fructicola were investigated. Inhibition activities of the ethyl alcohol or acetone extracts of dehydrated Allium species were studied by disc-diffusion and broth dilution methods. The Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and the Minimum Fungicidal Concentration (MFC) were found in the range of 75 and 100 mg/mL (w/v). Ethyl alcohol extracts of dehydrated onion (Allium cepa L.) in the range of 75 and 175 mg/mL were determined as the most inhibitory MIC and MFC for A. niger, F. oxysporum and C. albicans respectively. The extracts possess antifungal activity against some of the tested filamentous fungi and yeasts at various concentrations. Received: July 8, 2008; accepted: July 30, 2008     

Klinische Wirksamkeitsprüfung von Tierarzneimitteln – ein kurzer Überblick

Zusammenfassung:  Der Artikel gibt einen kurzen überblick über die Prüfung der klinischen Wirksamkeit von Tierarzneimitteln. Es werden sowohl die gesetzlichen Grundlagen und in Erg?nzung hierzu einige gültige Leitlinien als auch die Voraussetzungen zur Durchführung klinischer Studien angesprochen. Zum Studiendesign werden spezielle Punkte wie z.B. GCP (Good Clinical Practice), Studienpopulation oder Zielkriterien genannt. Schlie?lich befasst sich der Artikel mit einigen Ausnahmen zur Durchführung klinischer Studien zur Wirksamkeitsprüfung. Eingegangen: 20. September 2007     

Climate Protection

The voice of the social sciences in climate research and in climate policy discussions, except for interventions from economists mainly about the costs associated with policy options driven by climate science research, has been muted if not altogether absent. The absence of the social sciences from climate research and policy not surprisingly has coloured climate discourse in peculiar ways. We are making the case for a greater involvement and importance of the social sciences in interdisciplinary climate research.

It is not space but the structuring that comes from the soul that has social significance. Georg Simmel ([1908] 1992)

Soil and climate together determine the natural fertility of a country and of its people who are led either to indolence or to activity. Werner Sombart (1938)

Received: September 26, 2008; accepted: October 2, 2008     

Elektronische Übermittlung von Meldungen zu Verdachtsfällen unerwünschter Wirkungen nach Anwendung von Tierarzneimitteln an das BVL

Zusammenfassung:  Daten zu unerwünschten Reaktionen nach der Anwendung von Tierarzneimitteln müssen von pharmazeutischen Unternehmern in einer dem europ?ischen Datenmodell entsprechenden elektronischen Form an das Bundesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit übermittelt werden. Hierfür stehen vier verschiedene technische L?sungen zur Verfügung. Durch die elektronische übertragung konnten Fortschritte in der Pharmakovigilanz erzielt werden, welche dazu beitragen, die Qualit?t, Sicherheit und Wirksamkeit von Tierarzneimitteln sicherzustellen.

---

Summary:  Marketing authorisation holders are obliged to send data of adverse reactions after use of veterinary medicinal products to Federal Office of Consumer Protection and Food Safety in electronic form according to European standards. Four technical solutions to provide those reports are available. Through electronic transmission improvements in pharmacovigilance have been made, which will help to ensure quality, safety, and efficacy of veterinary medicinal products.

---

Eingegangen: 19. September 2008     

SARS – Pandemie und Emerging Disease

The SARS-epidemic of 2002/2003 with worldwide 8.096 cases and 774 fatalities was the first pandemia of the 21^st century. SARS, the severe acute respiratory syndrome, arose in southern China and spread from Southeast-Asia finally over all five continents. It caused heavy pneumonia with pulmonal failure and enteric involvement in man. The causative agent was a novel coronavirus (SARS-CoV), which was transmitted from bats to small carnivores and from them to man. The mutations of the viral receptor gene thus allowed the infection of man and the transmission from man to man. The SARS-pandemia can therefore be regarded as a model of an emerging disease. Eingegangen: 21. Mai 2008     

Acute View Transport biofuels: Can they help limiting climate change without an upward impact on food prices?

Comprehensive life cycle assessments show that current transport biofuels often do worse than conventional fossil transport fuels as to the emission of greenhouse gases. Biofuels from microalgae grown with present technology and lignocellulosic biofuels from current arable land or land that is to be deforested are unlikely to do better regarding the emission of greenhouse gases than fossil transport fuels. When crops characterized by relatively low fossil fuel inputs and relatively high biomass yields are grown on abandoned agricultural and marginal soils which currently sequester little carbon, cropping for transport biofuels may help in limiting climate change without an impact on food prices. For such cropping one probably has to go beyond the market mechanism. Worldwide, there is some scope for the use of harvest residues in biofuel production. However, European arable soils show on average large losses of soil carbon and this rather favors increased addition of such residues to soils. Received: November 17, 2008; accepted: December 3, 2008     

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in chocolate on the German market

Benzo[a]anthracene (BaA), chrysene (CHR), cyclopenta[c,d]pyrene (CPP), 5-methylchrysene (5MC), benzo[b]fluoranthene (BbF), benzo[k]fluoranthene (BkF), benzo[j]fluGoranthene (BjF), benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), dibenzo[a,h]anthracene (DhA), indeno[1,2,3-cd]pyrene (IcP), benzo[g,h,i]perylene (BgP), dibenzo[a,l]pyrene (DlP), dibenzo[a,e]pyrene (DeP), dibenzo[a,i]pyrene (DiP) and dibenzo[a,h]pyrene (DhP), the 15 SCFPAH, assessed to be relevant as well as benzo[c]fluorene (BcL) recommended by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), were analysed in different types of chocolate. The sample preparation included accelerated solvent extraction (ASE), size exclusion chromatography (SEC) and solid phase chromatography using small silica gel columns. The individual PAH were separated by gas chromatography using a VF-17ms GC column and detected by high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS). The investigation of 40 samples of various types of chocolate with different cocoa contents resulted in a median benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) content of 0.22 μg/kg. Furthermore, the results showed a linear correlation between the content of BaP and the sum content of the 16 priority PAH. Therefore, the analysis of BaP as a leading substance seems to be suitable to estimate the PAH contamination in chocolate.

---

Zusammenfassung:  Für Bestimmung der 15+1 von der EU als priorit?r eingestuften PAK in verschiedenen Schokoladen wurde eine Analysenmethode bestehend aus beschleunigter L?sungsmittelextraktion (ASE), Gelpermeationschromatographie (GPC) und Nachreinigung an einer Minikieselgels?ule verwendet. Die Identifizierung und Quantifizierung der einzelnen Verbindungen erfolgte nach gaschromatographischer Trennung mit dem hochaufl?senden Massenspektrometer unter Verwendung einer VF-17ms GC-S?ule. Die Untersuchung von 40 Schokoladenproben mit verschiedenen Kakaogehalten erbrachte im Median einen Gehalt an Benzo[a]pyren (BaP) von 0,22 μg/kg. Es zeigte sich weiterhin eine enge Korrelation des BaP-Gehalts vom Gesamtgehalt der 15+1 EU-PAK. über die Leitsubstanz BAP l?sst sich somit der Gesamtgehalt der 15+1 EU-PAK durch die alleinige Bestimmung von BaP in Schokolade absch?tzen.

---

Received: February 10, 2009; accepted: February 25, 2009.