Awareness of prior success or failure: A critical factor in task performance.

Exp I, with 36 undergraduates, determined the effects of 2 levels of history of success (high or low) and the presence or absence of an audience on task performance. Results show that after prior failure, alone Ss performed significantly better than audience Ss, although after prior success, the performance of alone and audience Ss did not differ. These results counter K. J. Good's (1973) results, since his experiment produced a social facilitation effect after prior success, not after prior failure. Performance differences were probably due to differences in audience awareness. In the present experiment, the audience was presumably unaware; whereas in Good's experiment, the audience was presumably aware of S's prior performance level. Exp II (60 Ss) tested the merits of this explanation. Ss with a history of success or failure performed either alone or in 1 of 2 audience manipulations. Ss were told that the audience was either aware or unaware of their prior performance level. Results support the hypothesis. It is argued than an audience can affect the type of standard that an S uses to evaluate performance and that the quality of an S's performance is a function not only of the criterion but also of S's expectation of meeting the criterion (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement goals as predictors of achiement-relevant processes prior to task engagement.

This research comprised 3 studies (2 prospective and 1 short-term longitudinal) designed to investigate mastery, performance-approach, and performance-avoidance goals as predictors of achievement-relevant processes prior to the undergraduate examination experience. Results from across the 3 studies were supportive of the authors' hypotheses and revealed a differential predictive pattern for each of the achievement goals. Mastery goals were linked to numerous positive processes (e.g., challenge appraisals, absorption during preparation), performance-approach goals were linked to a more limited set of positive processes (e.g., challenge appraisals, grade aspirations), and performance-avoidance goals were linked to numerous negative processes (e.g., threat appraisals, anticipatory test anxiety). Implications for the trichotomous achievement goal model and educators are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Construct models of task performance.

A covariance structure model was tested that related 3 classes of predictors (ability, experience, and supervisor support) to several classes of criteria of task performance (rated performance by self, supervisor, and peers, a work sample test, and training success). The model was tested for 3 categories of tasks (installation of engine parts, inspection of components, and forms completion), using data for 201 first-term U.S. Air Force jet engine mechanics. Ability explained significant variance in training success for 3 categories, in rated performance for 2 categories, and in work sample performance for 1 category. Experience explained substantial variance in rated performance for 3 categories, and in work sample performance for 2 categories. Supervisor support did not explain significant variance in any category. The task models have potential usefulness as the beginnings of a generalizable task taxonomy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Emotional arousal and task performance.

42 male Ss were exposed to either a hostility inducing or a neutral confederate and then tested on both stereotyped and nonstereotyped forms of a simple lever pressing task. As predicted, emotional arousal (hostility) had no effect on performance of the relatively stereotyped task but led to a considerable though transitory drop in performance after changeover to a nonstereotyped task requiring concentration. This result corroborates in a laboratory setting previous reports of research done in the field. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of electronic performance monitoring on personal control, task satisfaction, and task performance.

A laboratory study was conducted to assess effects of electronic performance monitoring on individuals working on computers in an officelike environment. Participants (N ?=?108) worked on a computerized data correction task under 6 experimental conditions that varied the amount of control over performance monitoring and knowledge concerning specific monitoring events. Results confirmed and extended a model proposed by D. B. Greenberger and S. Strasser (1986) to relate personal control, satisfaction, and performance. Participants with the ability to delay or prevent electronic performance monitoring indicated higher feelings of personal control and demonstrated superior task performance. Participants with exact knowledge of the occurrence of monitoring expressed lower feelings of personal control than those from whom specific knowledge of monitoring was hidden. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of elementary school children's private speech to behavioral accompaniment to task, attention, and task performance.

Tested assumptions drawn from Vygotsky's (1934 [1962]) theory about the development of private speech (PS) and its relationship to task performance, attention, and motor behaviors accompanying task orientation. 75 1st and 3rd graders were observed in their classrooms while engaged in math seatwork. Results show a developmental trend toward increasingly task-relevant and less audible PS and a shifting relationship of intelligence to PS with grade, which was consistent with Vygotsky's assumption that PS undergoes a curvilinear course of development that is governed by cognitive maturity. The relationship of PS to task success, as measured by classroom assignment performance and scores on the mathematics portion of the Stanford Achievement Test, varied with grade and mental ability (Cognitive Abilities Test—Primary Battery). Findings suggest that using the type of PS that is in natural developmental ascendence, given the child's level of intellectual maturity, is positively related to performance, but reverting to less mature forms is negatively predictive. Use of task-relevant PS predicted greater task attentional focus and reduction of extraneous, tension-reducing motor behaviors. Findings support Vygotsky's theory of the functional significance of PS in children's cognitive development and the validity of the theory for children's task-related behaviors in natural classroom learning contexts. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parallel processing of objects in a naming task.

The authors investigated whether speakers who named several objects processed them sequentially or in parallel. Speakers named object triplets, arranged in a triangle, in the order left, right, and bottom object. The left object was easy or difficult to identify and name. During the saccade from the left to the right object, the right object shown at trial onset (the interloper) was replaced by a new object (the target), which the speakers named. Interloper and target were identical or unrelated objects, or they were conceptually unrelated objects with the same name (e.g., bat [animal] and [baseball] bat). The mean duration of the gazes to the target was shorter when interloper and target were identical or had the same name than when they were unrelated. The facilitatory effects of identical and homophonous interlopers were significantly larger when the left object was easy to process than when it was difficult to process. This interaction demonstrates that the speakers processed the left and right objects in parallel. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leader's contribution to task performance in cohesive and uncohesive groups.

Army tank crews, B-29 bomber crews, antiaircraft artillery crews, and creative discussion groups provided data which were analyzed to determine the relationship between the leader's intelligence and group performance. Each sample was divided into cohesive and uncohesive groups, and the correlation between the leader's intelligence and group performance was computed. The results indicated consistently that the leader's intelligence predicts group performance in cohesive groups, but not in uncohesive groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Vigilance performance in a bimodal task.

Evaluated the need for an arousal construct in a theory of vigilance, as opposed to a theory based on a selective attention construct. Performance over time was examined in a situation involving 2 detection tasks, 1 in each of 2 modalities. 34 undergraduates were instructed to direct their attention to 1 of the 2 tasks, the primary task; the other task was of secondary importance. The main concern was in discovering whether the vigilance decrement would be specific to the primary task, as would be suggested by the selective attention theory, or whether it would be seen in both tasks, as suggested by the arousal construct. Data show that the decrement is task specific. However, it is not always the primary task which shows the decrement. It is argued that neither the construct of arousal nor that of selective attention is adequate, alone, to deal with the vigilance decrement. Results are discussed in terms of these 2 concepts and in terms of some practical implications for the design of real-life displays. (15 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in group task performance.

115 female and 118 male psychology students worked individually or in 3-person same-sex groups on a production task (requiring the generation of ideas) or on a discussion task (requiring group members to reach consensus concerning their evaluation of an issue). Because the content of the tasks was carefully selected not to favor the interests or expertise of one sex over the other, no sex differences were expected when Ss worked individually. Results show no gender differences in individual production performance. Only the creativity of the discussion problems was affected by gender; males working individually generated more creative solutions than did females. Consistent with prior research, males in groups generated more solutions to the production problems than did females; females in groups generated higher quality solutions to the discussion problem than did males. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Group performance in a cognitive task.

On a cross-word puzzle task performed by 60 pairs of male Ss, correlations between group performance and performance of the individuals (independently determined) were calculated. 82% of the true group performance variance on the task could be predicted from the individual performance scores. "It is suggested that the nature of the task is important in studies of group performance, and that the existence of 'group' phenomena should be empirically demonstrated rather than assumed." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attentional task aptitude and performance anxiety.

Anxious responding (trait, state, and test anxiety) has a negative impact on overt performance. Researchers have used a unidimensional method of assessing anxiety and performance, although a more informative approach would involve a comprehensive assessment battery and multiple performance tasks. Incorporating this strategy, the authors measured the impact of anxiety on 4 attentional processing tasks. Results revealed that "types" of anxiety symptoms were differentially related to attentional task performance; test anxiety accounted for the most variance in predicting performance on the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition (D. Wechsler, 1997) letter-number sequencing and digit-span subtests, trait anxiety and fear of negative evaluation were more significant in predicting Stroop performance, and math anxiety accounted for the largest variance toward understanding Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (C. W. Lejuez, C. W. Kahler, & R. A. Brown, 2003) scores. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Schizophrenic performance in a word-communication task.

Speaker and listener skills in schizophrenic and in normal Ss were studied using a communication task in which the speaker provides clue words to distinguish referent from nonreferent stimuli, and the listener chooses the speaker's referent from each stimulus array on the basis of the speaker's clue words. 4 groups of 18 speaker-listener pairs were used: schizophrenic speakers-schizophrenic listeners; schizophrenic speakers-normal listeners; normal speakers-schizophrenic listeners; normal speakers-normal listeners. Analysis of accuracy scores (proportion correct referent choices) showed that schizophrenic speakers were inferior to normals (p     

Activating stereotypes undermines task performance expectations.

According to the theory of stereotype threat (C. M. Steele, 1997; C. M. Steele & J. Aronson, 1995), activating stereotypes about a group's typical underperformance on a task can undermine a group member's performance on that task. The goal of the present research was to more fully delineate the contexts that activate task-performance stereotypes and the mechanisms that might lead to, or potentially prevent, such performance decrements. In 2 experiments, individuals led to believe that they had high ability on a task predicted that they would do better on future performances of the same or similar tasks than did those given ambiguous feedback about their task abilities when stereotypes were not accessible. However, activating group stereotypes—for instance, by creating expected solo status—undermined these positive expectations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Multiple bottlenecks in overlapping task performance.

Proposed a dual-bottleneck model for overlapping task performance. A central bottleneck prevents central processes in overlapping tasks from operating in parallel. A response-initiation bottleneck prevents 2 responses from being initiated in close succession. Response requirements of the overlapping tasks were manipulated in order to demonstrate the existence of the latter bottleneck and to assess its role in delimiting overlapping-task performance. In several experiments, elimination of this bottleneck resulted in a strong reduction of underadditive interactions that serve as key indicators of parallel processing in overlapping-task performance. Results indicate that these interactions were caused primarily by the response initiation bottleneck instead of the central bottleneck and suggest that perceptual identification and categorization require the central bottleneck. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conductance levels during vigilance task performance.

Using apparatus similar to the Mackworth "clock" test, 9 Ss provided conductance trends over a 2-hour session. Cluster analysis revealed 3 clusters: ascending in 4 Ss, descending in 3 Ss, and cyclical in 2 Ss. "No significant differences were found between the performances of these three clusters nor between high and low conductance groups. The results suggest, however, that higher conductance level is associated with better performance." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Distinguishing contextual performance from task performance for managerial jobs.

The purpose of this study was to extend previous research on the contextual and task performance distinction to managerial jobs. It was hypothesized that, unlike results for nonmanagerial work, the job dedication facet of contextual performance would contribute uniquely to overall managerial performance. The interpersonal facilitation facet of contextual performance was expected to be redundant with leadership task performance and therefore not to make a unique contribution. A multitrait-multirater correlation matrix was developed on the basis of meta-analysis. Structural equation modeling results generally supported the hypotheses, although there was some evidence of a unique contribution by interpersonal facilitation. Results also suggested that peers paid more attention to interpersonal facilitation when making overall performance ratings, whereas supervisors paid more attention to task performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The relative importance of task and contextual performance dimensions to supervisor judgments of overall performance.

Although evidence supports the unique contribution of task performance and contextual performance to overall evaluations, little is known about the relative contribution that specific dimensions of contextual performance make to overall performance judgments. This study evaluated the extent to which supervisors consider task and contextual performance by using relative weights (J. W. Johnson, 2000) to statistically describe the relative importance of specific dimensions of each type of performance to overall performance ratings. Within each of 8 job families in a large organization, each of 4 dimensions of contextual performance made not only a unique contribution but a relatively important contribution to the overall evaluation. Evidence also supports the adaptive performance dimension of handling work stress as an aspect of contextual performance and job–task conscientiousness as an aspect of both task and contextual performance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of task performance and contextual performance on systemic rewards.

Evidence from 2 samples of Air Force mechanics supported the hypothesis that contextual performance affects employees' career advancement and rewards over time. Results of hierarchical regressions controlling for experience showed task performance and contextual performance each predicted systemic rewards. Each facet explained separate variance in promotability ratings over 2 years. In both samples, contextual performance explained separate variance in informal rewards but task performance did not. Task performance explained incremental variance in career advancement 1 year later but contextual performance did not. Analyses using correlations corrected for unreliability suggest these results cannot be attributed to measurement error. Contextual performance still explained separate variance in informal rewards, and task performance explained distinct variance in career advancement a year later. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of normative information on task performance.

80 undergraduates volunteered for a work simulation project requiring them to place ice cream labels on lids for pint ice cream containers. Normative information for Ss was presented either on a wall chart or by having on the table the actual work completed by a previous S. There was a relevant and an irrelevant chart (individual performance of 5 people vs aggregated weekly performance for 5 wks) and relevant and irrelevant completed works (lids completed by a previous S vs computer cards sorted by S in a previous experiment). 20 Ss performed in each of the 4 cells formed by crossing the chart and actual work conditions. Results show that actual work information had a significant positive effect on performance, while the chart did not. It is suggested that normative information results in some degree of arousal that is translated into increased attention to one's performance. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)