Steel silos with different aspect ratios: II — behaviour under eccentric discharge

The phenomenon of eccentric discharge is widely recognised as the most dangerous condition for thin-walled metal silos and the cause of many catastrophic buckling failures. A realistic pressure model for this condition appears in a regulating standard for the first time in EN 1991-4 (2006) on Actions on Silos and Tanks. However the structural consequences of its application are currently largely unknown. The behaviour of a silo subjected to these pressures is certainly very dependent on the aspect ratio of the silo, the granular solid properties and the discharge channel geometry.This paper explores the behaviour of four thin-walled cylindrical silos with stepwise-varying wall thickness and aspect ratios varying from intermediate to very slender, subject to the codified EN 1991-4 eccentric discharge pressures. It is shown that a silo design that was found to be very safe under the EN 1991-4 concentric discharge pressures becomes very unsafe under eccentric discharge. Further, as it is known that the aspect ratio has an important effect on the flow pattern in discharging granular solids, and that slender silos exhibit very different flow patterns from squat silos, it is currently not certain whether a suitable range of aspect ratio over which the codified eccentric discharge model is to be applied has been prescribed in the standard.This paper is the second of a pair. In the first, the behaviour of a set of example silos under the EN 1991-4 concentric discharge condition was studied. The same example silos are studied here under eccentric discharge.     

Steel silos with different aspect ratios: I — Behaviour under concentric discharge

The current European standards for the design of thin-walled metal silos require the designer to use a complex combination of rules covering many different aspects of loading, structural behaviour and strength. Each individual rule was often developed autonomously, usually with implicit and undocumented conservative assumptions. When combined, the overall factor of safety of a designed silo may be significantly different from that guaranteed by the standard, making it difficult to reproduce the design rules in a numerical calculation that does not include the same implicit assumptions.This paper explores the behaviour of five thin-walled cylindrical silos with stepwise-varying wall thickness and aspect ratios varying from very squat to very slender, all custom-designed for and analysed under the EN 1991-4 concentric discharge loading condition. The aspect ratio plays a deciding role in both the behaviour and design of silos, and it is important to ascertain that a finding that is valid for one is transferable to the others. The nonlinear finite element analyses reveal that the computed load factor exceeds the partial safety factor in design by a large factor over a wide range of aspect ratio, suggesting that the overall design process is particularly conservative. The reasons for these discrepancies are explored.This paper is the first of a pair. The second paper explores the behaviour of the same set of example silos under the EN 1991-4 eccentric discharge loads, with fundamentally different conclusions.     

平底圆形钢筒仓稳定性设计-储料荷载

本文介绍了国外五套钢筒仓荷载规范^[1-5]，并与我国新出版的《粮食钢板筒仓设计规范》^[6]进行了比较．比较结果表明，我国规范只考虑中心装料和中心卸料时荷载的轴对称部分而忽略非轴对称分布对结构行为的影响．对轴对称荷载，我国规范中的竖向摩擦力明显比国外同类规范小，而水平压力修正系数却比国外同类规范大．对常见筒仓(H／D=2，D=20米)和常见储料(小麦)，仓底竖向摩擦力为国外同类规范值的48％～85％；水平压力修正系数却比国外同类规范大33％～54％．因此，我国《粮食钢板筒仓设计规范》在设计出更加经济钢筒仓的同时，也隐含着不安全的因素．本文的结果可为今后编制和修订同类筒仓设计规范提供参考．     

平面拱形桁架等效静风荷载研究

对矢跨比分别为1/4、1/6、1/8的3个拱形屋面进行了同步测压风洞试验,分析风荷载和结构参数对平面拱形桁架风振响应和等效静风荷载的影响规律。风洞试验结果表明, 0°风向时,高矢跨比屋面的最大负压幅值出现在屋顶,而低矢跨比的出现在迎风前缘。从方便工程应用的角度,采用简化振型函数表达针对结构多个位移和杆件应力响应的多目标等效静风荷载。在工程常用范围内,分析结构矢跨比、跨度、屋面质量、设计风速和风向等参数对中部和端部平面拱形桁架多目标等效静风荷载的影响,得到可用于指导该类结构抗风设计的等效静风荷载风压系数建议值,且经校核,在该等效静风荷载作用下的结构响应与实际动力响应极值吻合较好。     

Collapse fragility assessment of steel roof framings with force limiting devices under transient wind loading

Steel structural frame is a popular structural form to cover large-span roof space and under high winds. Either part of the roof enclosure or the entire roof structure can be lifted off a building, particularly for low sloped roofs subject to wind-induced suction force. Collapse of roof could cause severe economic loss and poses safety risk to residents in the building. The buckling of members in a steel roof frame structure, which may lead to progressive collapse, may be dynamic in nature. This paper presents a fragility analysis of the collapse of steel roof frame structures under combined static and transient wind loading. Uncertainties associated with wind load change rate and member imperfections are taken into account in this study. A numerical example based on a Steel Joist Institute (SJI) K series joist was used to demonstrate the use of force limiting devices for collapse risk mitigation. For the presented fragility assessment of steel roof collapse, a Monte Carlo method combined with response surface approach was adopted, which greatly reduces the computation time and makes the Monte Carlo simulation feasible for probabilistic collapse analysis of steel roof frame structures.     

北大体育馆屋盖结构风荷载分布特性的试验研究

风荷载是控制大跨度钢屋盖结构设计的主要荷载之一。结合北京大学体育馆屋盖结构的风洞模拟试验,以屋盖上的平均风荷载和脉动风荷载为研究对象,对屋盖上的风荷载分布特性进行了详尽的分析。结果认为:整个屋盖所受风荷载主要以负压为主,屋盖悬挑部分在迎风时产生“上吸下顶”的叠加作用,其他风向为“上吸下吸”的抵消作用;屋盖角部的风荷载一般也很大,在结构设计时应采取必要的构造措施;脉动风荷载对于总的设计风荷载来说不能忽略,准定常理论不适合用来计算大跨度屋盖的风振响应。     

Buckling experiments on steel silo transition junctions: II: Finite element modeling

This paper is concerned with the finite element modeling of the experiments on cone–cylinder–skirt–ring transition junctions in steel silos under simulated bulk solid loading presented in the companion paper. Before presenting the finite element results, the issue of modeling the interaction between the stored solid and the shell wall throughout the loading process is first examined. Results from nonlinear bifurcation analyses using the perfect shapes and nonlinear analyses using the measured imperfect shapes are then presented and compared with the experimental results. These comparisons show that despite the structural complexity of steel silo transition junctions, their behavior can be satisfactorily predicted by finite element analyses taking into account a number of important factors including geometric imperfections, effects of welding and the interaction between the junction and the stored solid. Next, the paper presents results of nonlinear analyses of these junctions with assumed eigenmode-affine imperfections. These results shed considerable light on the effect of ring buckling on the load-carrying capacity of transition junctions. Finally, the implications of the experimental and finite element results for the design of steel silo transition junctions are discussed.     

巴基斯坦某水泥筒仓项目滑模施工技术要点

巴基斯坦某堆场项目包含单仓和多仓两种结构的筒仓,其主体结构采用滑模施工。本文叙述了单仓和多仓两种结构筒仓的滑模施工技术要点和经验总结,为其它筒仓项目的施工提供参考。     

大尺度平屋盖聚类最优风压分区研究

以大尺度平屋盖为研究对象,针对其风压分布变化梯度较大的问题和GB 50009-2012《建筑结构荷载规范》关于大尺度平屋盖风压分区规定的不完善,围绕大尺度平屋盖风压分区问题,在得到各种风向下风压测点最不利极值风压的基础上,利用最短距离聚类法对风压测点分区,得到不同分区类数下的分区方案,用基于质量系数的聚类有效性评价法确定最佳聚类数及最佳分区方案,并采用面积权重法给出大尺度平屋盖分区风压系数。研究结果表明：大尺度平屋盖聚类最优风压分区类数为3;大尺度平屋盖角部大致在10%屋盖跨度范围内,属于风敏感部位,设计、施工时需特别注意;整个屋面平均风压系数会导致大尺度平屋盖中部偏于保守设计,角部低估了风荷载;在进行大尺度平屋盖抗风设计时,应先确定极值风压分区,并针对不同部位分别进行设计和施工。通过与规范平屋盖分区方式、常用分区方式确定的分区风压系数对比显示,聚类最优风压分区较其他方式确定的分压风压系数结果更为合理。     

武汉火车站站房屋盖和雨棚风洞试验研究

通过风洞试验研究了武汉火车站屋盖和雨棚的表面风荷载分布特征,着重分析了大型悬挑和镂空吊顶对风压分布的影响。屋盖的大型悬挑对局部风压影响很大,当来流斜吹时,悬挑局部区域的体型系数可达-2.2,而由于玻璃幕墙的阻挡作用,悬挑下方在某些风向会产生0.6的正压体型系数。下表面镂空时的上表面内侧风压和密闭时的下表面风压基本一致。在整体设计时,可按封闭模型的试验结果进行取值。通过对总受力和压力方差的统计分析,获得了不同风向下结构受风力作用的大小和离散程度,可为评估不利风向角提供重要参考依据。     

Simulation of wind loading and response of geometrically non-linear structures with particular reference to large antennas

The study of the response of wind-loaded flexible structures generates several problems, related to the collection of significant experimental data and the modelling of the random wind velocity field, fluid-structure interaction and actual structural behaviour. This paper presents some results of recent research on these problems.

The first part of the paper tackles the modelling and simulation of wind velocity and presents the treatment of some direct measurements on the site of an important broadcasting antenna located on Monte Nerone (Appennine Mountains) on the Italia watershed, 1500 m above sea level.

The second part deals with the problem of determining structural response under wind loading. Because of the impracticability of operating in the frequency domain in the presence of non-linearities, simulation and direct step-by-step integration in the time domain have been chosen. Two specific examples are presented, both pertaining to guyed antennas, for which non-linearities have been shown to be significant. The effects of ice formations on the mast and / orthe stays have also been investigated.     

带转折环梁的柱支承钢筒仓的结构行为研究

系统研究带转折环梁的柱支承钢筒仓(支柱终止于转折环梁下方)的结构行为。通过线性应力分析了解这类筒仓的应力和变形分布规律,通过线性特征值屈曲分析和几何非线性分析研究支承宽度和环梁截面尺寸对结构屈曲强度的影响。研究表明,支承宽度是影响结构屈曲强度的主要因素,而环梁截面尺寸仅对环梁局部屈曲有显著影响,对结构整体承载能力影响很小;由于环梁表现出稳定的后屈曲性能,以环梁屈曲来控制结构设计是偏于安全的。     

大跨屋盖风荷载特性的风洞试验研究

本文结合深圳市高交会展馆续建工程屋盖的试验研究,分析了位于高湍流区域的大跨低矮屋盖的平均风压及脉动风压分布特性,通过屋盖测点脉动风压随风向变化的三维功率谱密度函数,分析了结构的漩涡脱落特征。所得的这些结果对于结构的抗风设计有较为重要的指导意义。     

地质灾害下某筒仓结构的鉴定

本文介绍了钢筋混凝土排仓结构在岩溶突水地质灾害下的结构可靠性鉴定,对于该排仓结构按上部结构、地基基础两个结构系统进行可靠性评定,其中上部结构包括仓顶、仓壁、仓底、仓下支承结构四个鉴定单元。对于受地质灾害影响的构筑物可靠性鉴定,主要按裂缝分项和整体侧移分项进行可靠性评定,并根据搜集的相关资料定量分析地下水流失引起的负摩阻...     

大跨弧形屋面风荷载特性的风洞试验研究

根据榆林机场航站楼风洞试验结果,详细分析了大跨弧形屋面及弧形挑篷上的平均风荷载、脉动风荷载及其极值分布,研究了平均风荷载、脉动风荷载的分布特性。根据分析可知,大跨弧形屋面上同时存在压力和吸力,压力主要分布在屋面弧面起坡处,吸力主要分布在屋面挑篷部位;大跨弧形屋面的峰值吸力对风向角的变化特别敏感。给出了100年重现期屋面极值风荷载等压线图和体型系数,所得结论对于西部地区此类结构的抗风设计有参考作用。     

水泥工厂预均化库屋盖柱面网壳优化设计

针对水泥工厂预均化库屋盖结构工程,选取跨度60 m双层柱面网壳进行优化设计,分析了对其性能及用钢量的影响要素,结果表明地震作用对用钢量影响很小,而风荷载是网壳结构设计的控制荷载。     

开合屋盖体育场风荷载特性试验研究

建筑立墙迎风面开孔时内部风压随开口处外压变化显著,使得屋盖所受净压显著增大,其测量值往往大于规范取值。而对于屋盖顶部开孔的建筑,其内部风荷载我国规范没有相应取值。为了进行开合屋盖结构设计和探讨屋盖顶部开孔对屋盖风荷载变化的影响,以1∶300的几何缩尺比制作了一个开合屋顶体育场的刚性模型,在B类地貌中对该体育场固定、活动屋盖的上、下表面进行了风洞测压试验,得到了屋盖上、下表面的体型系数、平均风压系数、脉动风压系数和极值风压系数。试验结果表明：活动屋盖的开启,可有效减小固定屋盖和活动屋盖的平均风荷载,引发整个结构承受向下的风荷载;活动屋盖开启将增大固定屋盖和活动屋盖的净脉动风荷载;活动屋盖开启将减小固定屋盖和活动屋盖的极小值风荷载,且固定屋盖上的最大极小值风压系数的位置往屋顶开口方向移动。     

环状大悬臂挑篷风载特性与风场绕流分析

基于FLUENT软件并引入k-ε湍流模型,对环状大悬臂挑篷屋盖风载和风场进行模拟分析。数值计算分析风向角、屋盖倾角、看台后部通风率、挑篷开洞、有无后挑等参数对挑篷屋盖风压分布的影响;针对屋盖周围气流的绕流特性,分析设置屋盖竖向气动导流板和在挑篷外环边缘附近开洞对降低屋盖负风压的作用。研究结果表明：无论风向角如何变化,水平挑篷屋盖上风压均以吸力为主,较高的吸力分布在迎风的前缘位置;屋盖倾角宜设在 0°~15°范围,过大或过小均不利于结构抗风;增大结构迎风面的通风率有利于减小水平屋盖的平均风压;屋盖是否后挑对水平屋盖上表面的风压影响较小;增设屋盖竖向导流板可减低水平屋盖前缘局部极值风压;在环状挑篷外环边缘附近开洞可较明显减小屋盖风压。     

Stability of circular cylindrical steel shells under combined loading

Circular cylindrical shells made of steel are used in a large variety of civil engineering structures, e.g. in off-shore platforms, chimneys, silos, tanks, pipelines, bridge arches or wind turbine towers. They are often subjected to combined loading inducing membrane compressive and/or shear stress states which endanger the local structural stability (shell buckling). A comprehensive experimental and numerical investigation of cylindrical shells under combined loading has been performed which yielded a deeper insight into the real buckling behaviour under combined loading . Beyond that, it provided rules how to simulate numerically the realistic buckling behaviour by means of substitute geometric imperfections. A comparison with existing design codes for interactive shell buckling reveals significant shortcomings. A proposal for improved design rules is put forward.