A generic model for evaluating consumer food safety behaviour

This paper presents a detailed approach that can be used to evaluate the food safety behaviour of consumers. The preparation of a chicken and mushroom meal is used as a model. Hazard analyses were conducted and an audit hazard check-list compiled. A standard measure of hygienic food handling behaviour, a food operation risk (FOR) score, was devised, tested and refined. Additionally, a food safety risk (FSR) score, indicating the degree of likely risk to the consumer was developed. Early results indicate that these techniques are suitable for investigating the food safety behaviour of a larger sample of consumers with a range of home-produced food products. It will be useful to those involved in hygiene auditing and intervention and could benefit small scale caterers attempting to develop HACCP plans for their operations.     

Critical factors,food quality management and organizational performance

This paper proposes a model for measuring the effectiveness of quality (ISO 9001) and food safety (HACCP) systems, based on their stated objectives, when these systems are jointly implemented in a food company. In addition, it investigates the critical factors for effective implementation (CFEI) of the ISO 9001 and HACCP systems; and examines the degree to which the combined implementation of ISO 9001 and HACCP influences the overall performance of the certified firms. To achieve these objectives, primary field data was collected through an empirical survey that was conducted among 347 food companies in Greece, which were certified to ISO 9001, HACCP and/or ISO 22000 systems. Initially, Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and then Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) were applied. The connections among the non observed model factors were verified through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) inspection. The findings suggest that “employee attributes”, “organizations' attributes” and “internal business motives” make a significant contribution to the effective implementation of the ISO 9001 and HACCP systems. In addition, the effective implementation of the ISO 9001 and HACCP systems contribute to the business performance of companies in the Greek food industry. The evidence provided in this study helps managers to realize the importance of CFEI and the effective combined implementation of these systems in order to provide the necessary resources and support and develop the necessary policies, practices and procedures.     

Implication of food safety measures on microbiological quality of raw and pasteurized milk

The effects of implementing food safety measures including pre-requisite programs (PRPs) and/or Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points (HACCP) on the microbiological quality of raw and pasteurized milk during four years was investigated in one of the biggest diary plant in Serbia. On the dairy farm, the measures included training of farmers, investments in the infrastructure of gathering points for the collection of raw milk and transportation, improvement of hygiene and decrease of the number of small farmers. As a result of these measures, the contribution of raw milk with of lower total plate count (TPC) in total raw milk quantity decreased over time.As a result of HACCP system implementation in the dairy plant, TPC of pasteurized milk decreased from 3.32 ± 0.48 till 3.11 ± 0.30 log CFU/ml. Eight months after HACCP system was implemented, a significant decrease in TPC from 3.11 ± 0.30 till 2.18 ± 0.54 log CFU/ml in pasteurized milk which could be related to the additional investments covering pasteurisation unit and automated cleaning and disinfection system. The research confirmed constrains of a solely HACCP system without adequate PRPs.Food safety improvements through PRPs and HACCP both on farm level and in the dairy plant present a basis for the production of dairy products.     

Development and application of DNA analytical methods for the detection of GMOs in food

The principle of direct detection of recombinant DNA in food by the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is discussed following the three main steps: DNA-extraction, amplification by PCR and verification of PCR products.

Suitable methods for genomic DNA isolation from homogenous, heterogeneous, low DNA containing matrices (e.g. lecithin), gelatinising material (e.g. starch), derivatives and finished products based on classical protocols and/or a combination with commercially available extraction kits are discussed. Various factors contribute to the degradation of DNA such as hydrolysis due to prolonged heat-treatment, nuclease activity and increased depurination and hydrolysis at low pH. The term “DNA quality” is defined as the degree of degradation of DNA (fragment size less than 400 bp in highly processed food) and by the presence or absence of potent inhibitors of the PCR and is, therefore, a key criterion. In general, no DNA is detectable in highly heat-treated food products, hydrolysed plant proteins (e.g. soya sauce), purified lecithin, starch derivatives (e.g. maltodextrins, glucose syrup) and defined chemical substances such as refined soya oil.

If the nucleotide sequence of a target gene or stretch of transgenic DNA is already known specific primers can be synthesised and the segment of rDNA amplified. Detection limits are in the range 20 pg–10 ng target DNA and 0.0001–1% mass fraction of GMO. Amplification products are then separated by agarose gel electrophoresis and the expected fragment size estimated by comparison with a DNA molecular weight marker.

Several methods are used to verify PCR results and they vary in reliability, precision and cost. They include specific cleavage of the amplification products by restriction endonucleases or the more time-consuming, but also more specific, transfer of separated PCR-products onto membranes (Southern Blot) followed by hybridisation with a DNA probe specific for the target sequence. Alternatively, PCR products may be verified by direct sequencing. Nested-PCR assays combines high specificity and sensitivity.

Methods for the screening of 35S-promoter, NOS-terminator and other marker genes used in a wide range of GMOs, the specific detection of approved products such as FlavrSavr™ tomatoes, Roundup Ready™ Soya, Bt-maize 176 and official validated methods for potatoes and genetically modified micro-organisms, that have a model character, are available. Methods to analyse new GMO products are being validated by interlaboratory tests and new techniques are in development (e.g. EC project: DMIF-GEN). However, these efforts may be hampered by the lack of availability of GMO reference material as well as specific sequence information which so far can only be obtained from the suppliers.     

Emergency food control assistance for the prevention and control of cholera in Latin America

The cholera epidemic, which first struck Peru in early 1991, spread to several countries in the region causing serious public health problems and affecting the food production sector, food consumption and exports. This paper summarizes the technical assistance provided by FAO to attempt to stem the spread of the epidemic.     

Principles for the establishment of microbiological food safety objectives and related control measures

The ICMSF has recommended several steps for the management of microbiological hazards in foods in international trade, applying existing Codex documents in a logical sequence. The steps include: the conduct of a risk assessment and an assessment of risk mnanagement options, the establishment of a food safety objective (FSO), and confirmation that the FSO is achievable by application of GHP and HACCP. A FSO is a statement of the frequency or maximum concentration of a microbiological hazard in a food considered acceptable for consumer protection. FSOs can be used by risk managers to communicate to industries this acceptable level of a hazard, in order to establish effective control measures. The effectiveness of control measures is assured through adhering to performance criteria and process criteria set by the industry to meet the FSO. This system of food safety management will facilitate acceptance of seemingly different, but in reality equivalent, food production and food control practices.     

The microbiological quality of ready-to-eat food in Siu Mei and Lo Mei shops in Hong Kong

The safety of ready-to-eat food is an important issue. Improper handling of ready-to-eat food items may result in foodborne outbreaks. In this study, Chinese barbecued pork (Char Siu in Chinese) was selected as the target ready-to-eat food item for a microbial survey. The aim of this study was to evaluate the microbiological quality of Chinese barbecued pork sold in licensed Siu Mei and Lo Mei shops in Hong Kong. A total of 115 samples were collected from supermarkets or wet markets in the 18 districts. They were tested for aerobic plate counts (APC), Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus counts, and the presence of Salmonella spp. for assessing their safety level. Results showed APC ranging from 1.97 to 6.84 log CFU/g, with a mean of 5.05 log CFU/g; E. coli counts ranging from none detected to 3.10 log CFU/g, with a mean of 1.78 log CFU/g; and S. aureus counts ranging from none detected to 1.42 log CFU/g, with a mean of 0.15 log CFU/g. The mean APC and E. coli counts of samples from supermarkets were found to be significantly lower than those from wet markets (p < 0.05) indicating that supermarkets had better microbiological quality than wet markets. Salmonella spp. were isolated from 39% of the samples analyzed, indicating that cross-contamination was quite a serious problem in Siu Mei and Lo Mei shops in Hong Kong. Based on these results, recommendations such as routine inspections and training of vendors were suggested to improve the microbiological quality of products sold in licensed Siu Mei and Lo Mei shops in Hong Kong so as to minimize risks of foodborne outbreaks.     

Prerequisites for effective official food control

We studied the prerequisites for official food control and their relation to the quality of controls by using 17 Finnish municipal food control units as our sample. Based on our results, units invest in creating adequate working conditions through the provision of guidance papers, pre forma templates and possibilities for staff to collectively hold discussions. However, poor orientation, tacit knowledge and incomplete commitment among staff to quality systems remain as challenges in the units. Insufficient human resources and the inability of heads of food control units to recognize problems in the workplace setting may impair the functional capacity of units. Poor workplace atmosphere and weaknesses in organization of work may also be reflected in food businesses operators' lesser appreciation toward official food controls.     

Review of Salmonella detection and identification methods: Aspects of rapid emergency response and food safety

Salmonella has been recognized as a major and important foodborne pathogen for humans and animals over more than a century, causing human foodborne illness as well as high medical and economical cost. Accordingly, the effort to develop efficient and reliable Salmonella detection methods continues. This paper reviews and describes the development and application of commercially available Salmonella detection methods. These are categorized into several groups based on the principle applied: conventional culture methods, immunology-based assays, nucleic acid-based assays, miniaturized biochemical assays, and biosensors. Conventional culture methods serve as the basis in food testing laboratories despite rather laborious and time-consuming protocols. Considerable progress in rapid methods using emerging technologies yield faster answers and higher throughput of samples. This paper also shows and analyzes Salmonella test results and summarizes the features and limitations of the studies involving Salmonella detection methods developed for emergency response, mainly by food emergency response laboratories participating during recent fiscal years. The emergency response laboratories utilize Salmonella detection methods possessing properties that include simplicity, versatility, high sensitivity, good specificity, and cost efficiency. Collaboration of the food emergency response laboratories in the development of these technologies is important essentially to compare for the purpose of continually improving Salmonella detection methods.     

Simple methods for rapid determination of sulfite in food products

Two simple methods for sulfite determination in food products were proposed. The modified para-rosaniline (PRA)-formaldehyde method showed a much broader linear range (0.05–5.0 mg l⁻¹ as SO₂) than the commonly used procedure for the sulfur dioxide detection in the atmosphere (0.05–1.0 mg l⁻¹ as SO₂). By using a standard reference color card, this method only needed 5 min to complete a test. The 5,5′-dithiobis(2-nitrobenzoic acid) (DTNB) method was another good alternative for rapid determination of sulfite since it only needed one main reagent and the method was robust and easy to operate with the linear range of 0.10–4.3 mg l⁻¹ as SO₂. When applying to real food samples, the DTNB method had good recoveries for all the tested samples and the results agreed well with those obtained by the official iodometric titration. The modified PRA-formaldehyde method worked well with all the tested dried food products, though matrix effect of sulfite binding was observed for the beer samples. Thus, the modified PRA-formaldehyde method has advantages of sensitivity and rapidity, but the DTNB method offers a wider range of applications. Both methods provided practical ways for in situ determination of sulfite by non-professional operators with the modified PRA-formaldehyde method suited for food samples with less sulfite binding problems.     

Food manufacture and processing for safety: the challenge ahead

Changes in the production of primary agricultural products, in food manufacturing, and in eating habits have been at the root of a number of new food safety concerns. The HACCP system provides a means to address and prevent some of the problems which emerge as a consequence of these changes. However, if the new challenges are to be met effectively, the consumer also must take certain responsibilities. In addition, changes in the perception of food safety may be needed.     

丙烯球罐材料选用及质量控制

大型球罐的材料选用 ,是建造过程的首要环节。不同的材料 ,对其制造、安装、焊接、检验及焊后整体热处理等工艺 ,有不同的要求。针对丙烯球罐的建造 ,对材料的选用作了全面分析 ,并根据材料特性 ,提出建造过程中质量控制的有关问题     

金属缠绕式垫片制造工艺及质量控制

介绍了金属缠绕式垫片的切带、成型、缠绕、点焊和装环的制造工艺过程,从原材料选择、结构参数确定、工艺参数调节及尺寸等诸方面阐述了对缠绕式垫片质量的控制。     

Temperature management for the quality assurance of a perishable food supply chain

Compared to most product supply chains, food supply chains are often more complex and more difficult to manage because the food product is perishable and has a short shelf life. A cold chain or temperature-controlled supply chain provides the essential facilities and methods required to maintain the quality and quantity of foods. Since foods can be time and temperature sensitive in nature, they need to be properly taken care of in terms of harvesting, preparation, packaging, transportation and handling – in other words, throughout the entire chain. Temperature is the most important factor in prolonging or maintaining the shelf life of perishables. Refrigeration is one of most widely used methods to date to slow the bacteria growth that leads to food deterioration. The proper control and management of temperature is crucial in delivering perishables to consumers and ensuring that those perishables are in good condition and safe to eat. This paper addresses the methods used to improve the ability to define an optimal target temperature for multi-commodity refrigerated storage. Simulation results support the fact that the presented methods provide more accurate results compared to the conventional method. In addition, an experiment with a Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) was conducted. As a result, the sensor-based methods for real time quality monitoring and assessment that consider product metabolism and Euclidean distance cost depending on temperature changes are found to be superior to the traditional visual assessment method.     

Auditing local official food control: Perceptions of auditors and auditees

We surveyed the perceptions of regional food control officials (auditors) and municipal food control officials (auditees) on food control audits during 2007–2010 in Finland. According to the responses, the perceptions of auditors and auditees differed significantly. The regional officials had experienced the audits as clearly more useful and positive than the municipal officials and also found the current auditing system to be more suitable for evaluating municipal food control. The regional officials did, however, state that the audit results had not been adequately utilized in planning the guidance and education of professionals working in official food control. The municipal officials, in turn, were not satisfied with the expertise of the auditors concerning official food control in practice and did not find the audits very useful. The results suggest that more emphasis should be placed on peer-auditing to enhance the impact of food control audits.     

Rapid and standardized methods for detection of foodborne pathogens and mycotoxins on fresh produce

Due to the increase in consumption of fresh produce regarding to the health demand in the last decades, a considerable portion of foodborne outbreaks has been trackbacked to contaminated fresh produce, which have appeared as highly possible vehicles for foodborne outbreaks nowadays. Delays in detection of pathogens and mycotoxins on fresh produce hindered the trace-back investigations in finding the source and revealed the urgent need of rapid and reliable methods. In the frame of this review, we summarized available fast, reliable and standardized methods (conventional, molecular, rapid and recently developed methods) used for detection of the most common foodborne pathogens and mycotoxins which are the most likely causative agents of outbreaks caused by contaminated fresh produce.     

Advances in biofilm control for food and beverage industry using organo-silane technology: A review

Cell adhesion can be a potential problem as well as a valuable tool for microbiological engineering. It can lead to biofouling, contamination of product and corrosion. On the other hand, cell adhesion is purposely employed in fermenters and bioreactors to influence reactor performance. This paper presents an overview of organo-functional silanes – their chemistry, properties, use, and the main laboratory experiments that can be of interest to the food and beverage industry. The purpose is to introduce and explore possibilities for using organo-silane combinations to enhance or reduce microbial adhesion.     

Risk analysis and rapid detection of the genus Thermoascus,food spoilage fungi

Recently the numbers of spoilage incidents in food industry by the species of Thermoascus are increasing, but the risk of food spoilage have never been evaluated.It became obvious that their heat-resistances were higher than those of other heat-resist fungi, Byssochlamys, Hamigera and Neosartorya by our analyses. On the other hand, Thermoascus aurantiacus and Byssochlamys verrucosa had the idh gene, but they showed no patulin production in Potato dextrose broth or Czapek-glucose medium. Therefore, Thermoascus must be discriminated from other fungi in the food industry. We developed a rapid and highly-sensitive method of detecting Thermoascus in the genus level by using PCR. This method is expected to be extremely beneficial for the surveillance of raw materials in the food production process.     

Microbiological safety and quality of commercial sufu – a Chinese fermented soybean food

In this study, the microbiological safety and quality of commercial sufu were investigated. Twenty-three samples of three different types of sufu were obtained, mainly in China and some in The Netherlands. Chemical parameters analysed included moisture, pH, free amino N, NaCl, ethanol, sucrose, glucose, and fructose. Concentrations of NaCl, ethanol, glucose and fructose varied from 6.2%, 0.5%, 0% and 0% to 14.8%, 6.3%, 6.2% and 4.8%, respectively. Microbiological analyses were done for total count of mesophilic aerobic bacteria (TMAB), bacterial endospores, total count of halotolerant bacteria at 10% (THB10) and at 17.5% NaCl (THB17.5), lactic acid bacteria (LAB), fungi, Enterobacteriaceae, and the following pathogens: Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, Staphylococcus aureus and Listeria monocytogenes. High levels (>10⁵ CFU/g) of TMAB and bacterial endospores were found in most samples, and 85% of TMAB was identified as Gram-positive. Considerable levels (10⁵ and 10⁷ CFU/g) of LAB were detected in two samples of white sufu, and isolates of LAB were identified as most probably Lb. casei. One-third of the samples contained less then 10³ CFU/g B. cereus, but three samples had over 10⁵ CFU/g indicating potential hazard to consumers. All samples had less than 10³ CFU/g C. perfringens, except sample R11 (10⁵ CFU/g). S. aureus could not be detected in any of the samples tested since the competitive microflora (usually bacilli) disturbed typical features on the selective medium used; however S. aureus enterotoxin A was detected in some of the white and grey sufu samples. Fungi, Enterobacteriaceae, and L. monocytogenes were not detected in any of the samples. Based on these results, a microbiological guideline for safe commercial sufu is proposed.