Effects of crack properties and water-cement ratio on the chloride proofing performance of cracked SHCC suffering from chloride attack

This study aims at developing an SHCC mixture that offers improved workability and high rebar corrosion proofing performance while ensuring moderate tensile ductility. Specimens were made from several mixtures with part of the cement replaced with limestone powder, and with a reduced fiber content. Mechanical properties and corrosion proofing performance under tensile stress were examined to determine the effects of chloride in a simulated situation under uniaxial tensile strain. The results indicated that the fiber content in the mixture had no influence on the crack properties of steel reinforced SHCC under tensile load. It was found that the chloride proofing performance of SHCC with multiple cracks was affected by the crack properties such as the number of cracks and the accumulated crack width. Reducing the water-cement ratio was effective to enhance the chloride proofing performance of SHCC.     

超高韧性水泥基复合材料多缝开裂特性及其自生愈合

应变硬化水泥基复合材料(Strain hardening cement-based composites,SHCC)是超高性能水泥基材料的一种。通过三点弯曲加载试验,分别对普通砂浆和SHCC试件诱导开裂,对两种材料的开裂特性及其裂缝分布规律进行了研究。结果表明,SHCC材料试件与普通水泥砂浆试件相比具有更高的承载力和应变能力,初始开裂荷载约为普通砂浆试件的2.5倍。SHCC材料中的PVA纤维的桥接作用有效延迟了裂缝的产生与扩展,将普通砂浆试件中数量少而大的裂缝转化为多而细的微小裂缝,呈现多缝开裂特性,产生的裂缝宽度符合正态分布规律,且90%的微小裂缝小于30μm。这些微小裂缝在潮湿环境中产生一定程度的自生愈合,在水中的愈合程度和速度均高于在潮湿空气中。     

Simulation studies of methods to delay corrosion and increase service life for cracked concrete exposed to chlorides

The ingress of chlorides in reinforced concrete leads to the onset of steel reinforcement corrosion and eventually compromises a structure’s integrity. To extend its service life and improve safety, it is crucial to develop sound repair strategies for our nation’s infrastructure. In this paper, results are presented for numerical simulations to study the effectiveness of fillers for repair of cracks in concrete, so as to delay the onset of corrosion in reinforcing steel. Concretes without cracks and with either a 50 μm or 500 μm wide crack located directly above the steel reinforcement are simulated, with the addition of silica fume, a corrosion inhibitor, or epoxy-coated reinforcement being considered as additional scenarios. The effectiveness of the crack filler depends not only on its inherent diffusivity with respect to chloride ions, but also on its ability to penetrate and fill the damaged zone or interface between the open crack region and the bulk concrete. Additional simulations indicate that using continuum models instead of models that include details of the rebar placement can lead to underestimating the chloride concentration and overestimating the service life. Experiments are needed to study the ingress of chlorides in damaged (interfacial) regions adjacent to the crack or at the reinforcement surface, as the local transport properties of these regions can significantly influence service life predictions.     

Application of neutron radiography in observing and quantifying the time-dependent moisture distributions in multi-cracked cement-based composites

Significant tensile strain capacity of SHCC under tensile stress can be reached by multi-crack formation, while the cracks remain bridged by fibres. Ductility of SHCC is due to this multi-crack formation. Cracks are preferential pathways for ingress of water and salt solutions into the material. In this contribution neutron radiography has been successfully applied to visualize the process of water penetration into cracked SHCC and to quantify the corresponding time-dependent moisture distributions in cracked SHCC. Results indicate that in uncracked SHCC, less water can be found. Once cracked, however, both the amount of water and the penetration depth increased with increasing of crack density and the wider crack pattern when higher tensile strain was applied. Even at comparatively modest imposed strain when micro-cracks were formed, water penetrated into the specimens along the cracks of 30 μm–50 μm immediately and then water migrated further into the surrounding matrix from water filled cracks. Water then moved into the matrix adjacent to the cracks which was mechanically damaged by direct tension. Therefore, if durability of SHCC is an issue for application, a maximum strain may not be exceeded. In order to prevent penetration of water or salt solutions into cracked SHCC, two approaches were used. Integral water repellent SHCC was prepared by adding silane emulsion to the fresh mortar. Compared with neat SHCC, the integral water repellent SHCC with multi-cracks absorbed much less water after imposed to the same tensile strain. Notice that there was still a small amount of moisture that could enter the matrix of integral water repellent SHCC via cracks when the tensile strain was over 1.5% in this study. As an alternative method, surface impregnation with silane gel was a more promising approach to protect cracked SHCC from water or salt solution penetration into the material when multi-cracks formed.     

Laboratory studies on influence of transverse cracking on chloride-induced corrosion rate in concrete

To clarify the corrosion mechanism of steel induced by transverse crack, a study on the influence of crack widths and epoxy coating on corrosion of steel bars in cracked concrete is presented here. Microcell and macrocell corrosions of bars were investigated on single crack specimens with crack widths of 0.08, 0.26, 0.38 and 0.94 mm. The entire study was carried out in an artificially created chloride ion-induced corrosion environment. The results show that the steel in cracks was activated once the transverse crack occurred on concrete element, and the macrocell corrosion must co-exist with microcell corrosion of reinforcements in test specimens with transverse crack. The macrocell current of steel elements were separated from the crack width, and the wider the transverse crack is, the higher corroded area and the greater microcell current of the rebar is. Oxygen and water go into concrete through crack instead of through concrete cover. The epoxy coating cannot prevent the occurrence and propagation of crack, so it was not effective to prevent corrosion of steel bars in cracked concrete.     

裂缝对混凝土内氯离子扩散和钢筋锈蚀的影响

为了研究受力裂缝对混凝土内氯离子扩散的影响,对8根开裂(预制裂缝和受弯裂缝)的钢筋混凝土梁试件进行了盐溶液干湿循环试验;并采用半电池电位法和RCT(快速氯离子含量检测)法,分别对梁内钢筋的锈蚀状态以及各裂缝处氯离子含量进行了检测;最后采用ADINA有限元软件对开裂混凝土内氯离子的二维扩散行为进行模拟分析。试验和模拟结果表明:1)裂缝加速了氯离子的侵入,导致钢筋过早的开始锈蚀,且为局部氯离子的二维扩散提供了条件;2)裂缝宽度越大或间距越小,其对氯离子侵入引起的钢筋锈蚀影响程度越大;3)有限元模型的计算与试验结果吻合较好。     

Effect of flexure induced transverse crack and self-healing on chloride diffusivity of reinforced mortar

Cracks in reinforced concrete are unavoidable. Durability is of increasing concern in the concrete industry, and it is significantly affected by the presence of cracks. The corrosion of reinforcing steel due to chloride ions in deicing salts or sea-water is a major cause of premature deterioration of reinforced concrete structures. Although, it is generally recognized that cracks accelerate the ingress of chlorides in concrete, a lack of consensus on this subject does not yet allow reliable quantification of their effects. The present work studies the relationship between crack widths and chloride diffusivity. Flexural load was introduced to generate cracks of width ranging between 29 and 390 μm. As crack width was increased, the effective diffusion coefficient was also increased, thus reducing the initiation period of corrosion process. For cracks with widths less than 135 μm, the effect of crack widths on the effective diffusion coefficient of mortar was found to be marginal, whereas for crack widths higher than 135 μm the effective diffusion coefficient increased rapidly. Therefore, the effect of crack width on chloride penetration was more pronounced when the crack width is higher than 135 μm. Results also indicate that the relation between the effective diffusion coefficient and crack width was found to be power function. In addition, a significant amount of self-healing was observed within the cracks with width below 50 μm subjected to NaCl solution exposure. The present research may provide insight into developing design criteria for a durable concrete and in predicting service life of a concrete structures.     

Measurement and modeling of the ability of crack fillers to prevent chloride ingress into mortar

A common repair procedures applied to damaged concrete is to fill cracks with an organic polymer. This operation is performed to increase the service life of the concrete by removing a preferential pathway for the ingress of water, chlorides, and other deleterious species. To effectively fulfill its mission of preventing chloride ingress, the polymer must not only fully fill the macro-crack, but must also intrude the damage zone surrounding the crack perimeter. Here, the performance of two commonly employed crack fillers, one epoxy, and one methacrylate, are investigated using a combined experimental and computer modeling approach. Neutron tomography and microbeam X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (μXRF) measurements are employed on pre-cracked and chloride-exposed specimens to quantify the crack filling and chloride ingress limiting abilities, respectively, of the two polymers. A two-dimensional model of chloride transport is derived from a mass balance and solved by the finite element method. Crack images provided by μXRF are used to generate the input microstructure for the simulations. When chloride binding and a time-dependent mortar diffusivity are both included in the computer model, good agreement with the experimental results is obtained. Both crack fillers significantly reduce chloride ingress during the 21 d period of the present experiments; however, the epoxy itself contains approximately 4% by mass chlorine. Leaching studies were performed assess the epoxy as a source of deleterious ions for initiating corrosion of the steel reinforcement in concrete structures.     

Analysis of crack propagation due to rebar corrosion using RBSM

Cracking behavior due to rebar corrosion in concrete specimens having a single rebar is evaluated experimentally and analytically. In the experiments, in which corrosion was induced electronically, the propagation of cracks (including internal crack patterns and surface crack widths) was monitored. In addition, deformation of the specimen surface was measured using a laser displacement meter. In the analysis, a three-dimensional Rigid-Body-Spring Method (RBSM), combined with a three-phase material corrosion–expansion model, is proposed to simulate crack propagation due to rebar corrosion. The effects of the properties of corrosion products such as elastic modulus, penetration of corrosion products into cracks, and local corrosion after cracking of the concrete are investigated. Cracking behavior due to rebar corrosion is simulated reasonably well. The simulations using RBSM provide insight into the mechanisms of crack initiation and propagation due to rebar corrosion.     

Influence of bundle coating on the tensile behavior,bonding, cracking and fluid transport of fabric cement-based composites

The goal of this work was to study the mechanical performance and fluid ingress of fabric cement based components made of epoxy coated and non-coated multifilament carbon fabrics. Direct tensile, pullout, and fluid transport tests were performed. Cracking was observed using four test geometries: (i) tensile tests, (ii) pullout tests, (iii) restrained shrinkage tests, and (iv) wedge splitting tests. The results show that coating multifilament carbon yarns improves mechanical behavior and bonding of the composite when compared with non-coated carbon yarn composites. The non-coated carbon systems may be problematic due to poor bonding as well as their potential to permit fluid ingress along the bundle–matrix interface and through the empty spaces between filaments. In addition, it was also found that fabric with coated bundles reduces crack width and develops dense branched network cracks. However, these additional fine cracks were found to increase fluid ingress into the matrix as compared with the plain cement paste.     

Cover cracking as a function of bar corrosion: Part I-Experimental test

The appraisal of concrete structures suffering rebar corrosion is one of the most urgent needs regarding the selection of the technical and economical optimum time for repair. Up to now this appraisal has been mainly based on empirical and subjective considerations. Among the different distressing consequences of rebar corrosion the best known is the cracking of concrete cover. However, very few data have been reported in the literature on the amount of corrosion needed to induce this cracking. In the present paper, some preliminary experiments are reported in which small reinforced beams are artificially corroded by an impressed current, and the amount of current (and loss of bar cross-section) needed to induce the crack at the surface are monitored, together with the evolution of crack width, by the use of strain gauges applied to the surface of the specimens. In a companion paper, a numerical model to relate the decrease in rebar cross-section to the cover cracking will be developed. That model is based on the orderly imposition of corrosion to finite elements of the rebar by a fictitious temperature increment that produces analogous effects, while concrete cracking is introduced by a standard smeared-crack model. The experimental results indicate that only a few micrometres of loss in rebar cross-section are needed to induce visible cover cracks (0.1 mm width) in the conditions of the test.     

Influence of long-term chloride diffusion in concrete and the resulting corrosion of reinforcement on the serviceability of RC beams

This paper presents the chloride penetration and the effect of chloride ingress on the serviceability of reinforced concrete (RC) beams. A series of experimental studies were carried out on beams with various corroded ages up to 28 years. The chloride content in different locations were tested during various periods. Different states influencing the serviceability of the corroded beams were investigated, including the maximum width of the corrosion-induced cracks of the concrete cover, the mid-span deflection of the beams under the service load and their load-bearing capacity. Based on the results available from this programme, the service life of corroded beams was predicted by the corrosion process of the reinforcement. The results showed that the chloride corrosion could significantly deteriorate the serviceability of the beams. The current criteria concerning the chloride content at the level of the reinforcement of the concrete beams and the maximum width of the corrosion-induced cracks appear to be very conservative.     

Lattice modeling of chloride diffusion in sound and cracked concrete

Reinforced concrete structures are frequently exposed to aggressive environmental conditions. Most notably, chloride ions from sea water or de-icing salts are potentially harmful since they promote corrosion of steel reinforcement. Concrete cover of sufficient quality and depth can ensure protection of the steel reinforcement. However, it is necessary to study the effects of material heterogeneity and cracking on chloride ingress in concrete. This is done herein by proposing a three-dimensional lattice model capable of simulating chloride transport in saturated sound and cracked concrete. Means of computationally determining transport properties of individual phases in heterogeneous concrete (aggregate, mortar, and interface), knowing the concrete composition and its averaged transport properties, are presented and discussed. Based on numerical experimentation and available literature, a relation between the effective diffusion coefficient of cracked lattice elements and the crack width was adopted. The proposed model is coupled with a lattice fracture model to enable simulation of chloride ingress in cracked concrete. The model was validated on data from the literature, showing good agreement with experimental results.     

Microwave reflection properties of concrete periodically exposed to chloride solution of 3% salinity and compression force

Corrosion of steel rebar in a concrete structure compromises its structural integrity and hence its performance. Chloride intrusion into concrete can lead to depassivation of the steel and initiation of corrosion. Methods exist to detect chlorides in concrete, but the practical use of many of these may be problematic because they are destructive and time consuming, and cannot be used to analyze large structures. Microwave nondestructive evaluation techniques applied to mortar have proven successful for detecting mixture constituents, chloride ingress, and cure-state monitoring. In this paper several concrete samples are cyclically soaked in distilled water and saltwater while also experiencing compression force. Compression force, simulating in-service loading, results in increased microcracking and permeability, which promotes chloride ingress. The daily microwave reflection properties of these samples were measured at 3 GHz. The results show the capability of these microwave measurements for detecting the increased level of chloride permeation as a function of increasing number of soaking cycles. In addition, comparisons between the reflection properties of mortar and concrete cubes soaked in distilled water exhibit similarity in trends, indicating that the various phenomena that occur within them are systematically similar.     

Water permeability of cracked strain-hardening cement-based composites

Strain-hardening cement-based composites (SHCC) are characterized by the formation of numerous fine cracks under tensile loading. The water permeability of the cracked material and, consequently, the durability of respective structural members will strongly depend on these cracks. Experimental investigations into the water permeability of both SHCC specimens pre-cracked under uniaxial tension and SHCC overlays on cracked concrete substrate were performed. It is proposed to determine certain crack pattern parameters which may be linked to the theoretical water permeability of the cracked material. For this linking, a weighting function for the observed crack widths has been derived on the basis of the Hagen-Poiseuille equation.     

Internal cracking and transport properties in damaged concretes

The durability of concrete constructions is strongly related with the transport of fluids through the material. The presence of pores and cracks increases the permeability of the material, enhancing the ingress of aggressive agents that contribute to the material degradation. In this sense the internal structure is decisive, mainly the characteristics of the mortar matrix and the aggregates of greater size and its interfaces. In this work the incidence of different types of cracks on the transport properties is analyzed, considering several cases of degradation: concretes damaged by exposure to low humidity conditions or to high temperatures (150 and 500°C), and a concrete affected by alkali-silica reaction (ASR). The characterization of the internal structure was made at the mesostructural level through the assessment of the density and width of cracks; as transport properties the water absorption, capillary absorption, water penetration and coefficient of water permeability were considered. As expected the width, the density and the type of fissures had a strong impact on the transport properties, however each variable will have a higher or lower incidence depending on the transport mechanism involved. In concretes damaged by drying shrinkage the permeability increased steadily with the crack density, however, the capillary absorption after reaching a maximum decreased for cracks of greater width. At the same time in concrete damaged by ASR, differences were found in the water penetration test in accordance with the crack orientations which were not verified in the values of the coefficient of permeability.     

An improved image processing method for assessing multiple cracking development in Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (SHCC)

Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (SHCC) exhibit tension-hardening behavior accompanied by the formation of multiple cracks. To study the multiple cracking process, cracks are identified from digital images. As conventional image processing technique based on a single threshold of gray intensity cannot accurately determine the width of both fine and wide cracks, a new double-threshold algorithm is developed and its accuracy is verified by comparing with direct measurement under the microscope. Then, an additional algorithm for removing the noises and isolating individual crack regions is introduced. With the improved image processing method applied to a large number of sequential images, detailed information on the development of crack number and width is acquired. The average value and deviation of crack width at a given strain can be calculated to facilitate durability design. Also, with the stress-crack width relation obtained for various cracks, the fiber distribution among cracked sections can be estimated.     

Factors controlling cracking of concrete affected by reinforcement corrosion

The present paper tries to contribute to quantifying the relationship between the amount of corrosion and cover cracking. The variables studied were: cover/diameter (c/ø), proportions of cement, w/c, cast position of the bar, transverse reinforcement and corrosion rate. The corrosion is accelerated by applying constant currents causing the rebar to act as an anode. The results indicate that the cracking process develops in two steps: generation and propagation. Radius losses of about 15–50 μm are necessary to generate the first visible crack (<0.1 mm width). The propagation follows a behaviour of the type: w (crack width in mm)=a+bx (radius loss in μm).     

Effect of polypropylene fibre reinforced mortars on steel reinforcement corrosion induced by carbonation

Low amounts of polypropylene fibres are added to concrete as a secondary reinforcement to control cracking. Whether this addition might improve the corrosion resistance of the concrete reinforcement by increasing the resistance to carbonation, via reducing penetrating paths, is the subject addressed in the present paper. Crack control by the fibres in plastic state mortars and crack evolution with time have been studied. Furthermore, the influence of crack width on the steel bar corrosion induced by carbonation has also been monitored. Circular specimens made of mortar have been employed in the experimental phase of the study, using a water/cement ratio of 0.50 and cement/sand ratio of 2/1. The polypropylene fibre content was 0% and 0.5% by volume. Low modulus polypropylene fibres may control the crack width in specimens subjected to inadequate curing conditions. No relationship between crack width and time for corrosion initiation has been observed. However, a beneficial effect of fibre addition on the corrosion rate was found.