Ethical and professional dimensions of socially sensitive research.

Socially sensitive psychological research can pose special ethical problems for the investigator. Socially sensitive investigations, by their very nature, are more likely to draw the attention of other psychologists, the media, and the general public. Ethical analysis relating to the research question, the research process, and the potential application of findings is particularly important under these circumstances. A rudimentary taxonomy is offered that contains four points in the research process at which ethical issues may arise and 10 types of ethical issues. This matrix offers social scientists a tool for increasing their understanding of ethical issues in socially sensitive research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical dilemmas in qualitative research: how do we respect autonomy?

This essay brings the concept of nursing research into light and in particular examines the principle of 'respect for autonomy', its relationship and limitations in the field of research on human subjects during qualitative research. This essay will also identify how ethical dilemmas, involving respect for autonomy, can develop during research and a systematical method of critical ethical analysis will be presented to demonstrate how nurse researchers can resolve such issues, if and when they arise. It is necessary to focus on one facet of the research process to illustrate the 'depth' of consideration required to ensure that such research is of the highest quality.     

Empirical studies of ethical issues in research: A research agenda.

Although the development of ethical principles is normative in nature, empirical investigation can play an important role in the development of principles and standards. Assumptions underlying the development of principles (e.g., the competency of certain populations to consent to research) can be examined through empirical investigation and thereby have an impact on the actual standards developed. The empirical study of ethical issues in research and application of psychological findings to this area have been neglected by psychologists. To focus attention on the usefulness of and need for empirical studies on ethical issues in research, the American Psychological Association Committee for the Protection of Human Participants in Research convened a symposium in March 1986. A major goal of the symposium was to identify areas of research ethics in which psychological studies would be available and would serve to promote development of more informed public policy and ethical standards. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Critical social theory as a grounded process

This article reflects upon the research process that uses critical social science as its basis. Some of the common criticisms of critical social science research are rebutted by following the research trail taken by the authors when undertaking their own projects. The similarities and differences of critical social science and the interpretative methodologies are outlined in the selection of study area, the relationship of the researcher and participants, ethical issues, and data collection and analysis. The writers conclude that critical social science research reports that are correctly carried out should be firmly grounded in each of these stages, thereby a foundation for nursing and midwifery practice.     

Accounting for the use of behavior technologies in social psychology.

Considerable scholarly effort in social psychology is devoted to the development of techniques that change behavior. In this article, the social and political forces that have guided the development of these techniques are examined. Also, ethical and psychological issues associated with the use of behavior technologies are discussed. These issues arise from the fact that to change behavior, it must first be controlled. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical Perspectives on Qualitative Research in Applied Psychology.

The present article explores ethical issues that emerge in qualitative research conducted by applied psychologists. The utility and relevance of the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (American Psychological Association, 2002) for qualitative research are examined. The importance of psychology's fiduciary relationship with research participants is presented as the basis for an ethical stance of "trustworthiness." A scientist-practitioner perspective on research ethics is advanced, based on the argument that psychology's social role carries obligations that differ from those of other social science disciplines that conduct qualitative research. Dilemmas that are likely to emerge in qualitative research are discussed, with particular attention to competence, multiple relationships, confidentiality, and informed consent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The culture of science and the ethics of alcohol administration in research.

The failure of ethicists to develop an absolute ethical code has led to the consideration of ethics in particular contexts. In the alcohol field, such consideration has resulted in considerable controversy, because this field has been influenced by parallel cultural contexts: a scientific research culture and a layman's spiritual culture (represented by Alcoholics Anonymous). Both cultures can inform ethical decision, but for scientific decisions to be made the influence of these cultures must be disentangled. This article reviews issues pertaining to this disentangling in connection with the use of alcohol administration in research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bioethics for clinicians: 10. Research ethics

Medical research involving human subjects raises complex ethical, legal and social issues. Investigators sometimes find that their obligations with respect to a research project come into conflict with their obligations to individual patients. The ethical conduct of research rests on 3 guiding principles: respect for persons, beneficience, and justice. Respect for persons underlies the duty to obtain informed consent from study participants. Beneficence demands a favourable balance between the potential benefits and harms of participation. Justice requires that vulnerable people not be exploited and that eligible candidates who may benefit from participation not be excluded without good cause. Studies must be designed in a way that ensures the validity of findings and must address questions of sufficient importance to justify the risks of participation. In any clinical trial there must be genuine uncertainty as to which treatment arm offers the most benefit, and placebo controls should not be used if effective standard therapies exist. Researchers have a responsibility to inform themselves about the ethical, legal and policy standards that govern their activities. When difficulties arise, they should consult the existing literature and seek the advice of experts in research ethics.     

Reweaving deception's tangled web.

Recent trends in social psychological research toward greater use of field settings and unobtrusive measurement was reviewed. The following issues bear on this concern: (1) the general public may be more intolerant of being used as research subjects than are college students; (2) disguised observation may tend to aggravate a post-Watergate concern over invasion of privacy; (3) greater harm to participants in some field research may be likely because laboratory control is greatly lacking; (4) because concern with revealing social psychological data to the public may jeopardize future research, scant feedback is provided to participants. Other ethical problems and possible solutions were mentioned. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Protecting the interests of participants in research into illicit drug use: two case studies

This paper addresses the conflict between the ethical and legal responsibilities of researchers engaged in illicit drug use research. Fundamentally, the primary ethical responsibility is to protect research subjects from any harm which may come to them as a consequence of having taken part in the research. Legal responsibilities, however, might lie in assisting police with their enquiries into the conduct of an individual who is a research subject, and allowing research data to be searched and possibly used in evidence against the individual. There is no Western Australian legislation which protects research, nor Australian legislation which can be applied to most studies. Using two case studies, we give examples of the conflict and suggest that legislation may be the most effective way to overcome it. However, we also raise a number of issues which would need to be considered before solutions are enacted.     

The rights of the subject in social research: An analysis in terms of relative power and legitimacy.

Contends that most ethical problems in social research arise because Ss are deficient in power relative to social scientists and other participants in the research process. S's disadvantaged position within the social system and research situation is discussed, and criteria for assuring that researchers use their power legitimately are proposed. A detailed analysis is presented of ethical problems related to social research processes (e.g., invasion of S's privacy) and products (e.g., counterinsurgency activities in developing countries), and corrective approaches are suggested. (28 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Legal and ethical aspects of nonreactive social psychological research: An excursion into the public mind.

Assessed reactions of 174 randomly selected Ss (median age 27.83 yrs) to 8 nonreactive methods used in social psychological research by I. Silverman (see record 1975-28673-001). In general, while in many cases the majority of Ss did not react negatively to the methods, substantial minorities in most cases and the majority in some cases did object. Possible interpretations of these data are discussed. It is suggested that future investigators consider the public's attitudes toward a particular nonreactive method in determining its use or nonuse. Issues raised by such a procedure are discussed, and a call is made for more critical thinking on ethical issues as well as for more data that can help to resolve ethical concerns. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

New technology, old issues: Demonstrating the relevance of the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists to the ever-sharper cutting edge of technology.

New technology brings with it new opportunities for the practice of our profession. However, this technology is also a double-edged sword in that it can also cause problems for our profession and those we serve. The Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists (3rd edition) provides a foundation for approaching the issues that can arise in its use. It is argued that psychologists need not wait for specific rules and guidelines regarding the ethical use of new technologies; rather, psychologists can utilize the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologists immediately to address many of the issues involved. There is a wide range of areas in which ethical issues can arise. The focus in this paper is on three specific examples (online personal information accessibility, web-based advertising, and electronic data storage). These examples illustrate both the ethical issues involved and demonstrate the potential for how the Code can be used to think through and manage or resolve the issues. After a discussion of the three examples, the ongoing relevance of the Code to meeting the ethical challenges of continuously evolving technologies is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical issues in psychotherapy research: Problems in a collaborative clinical trials study.

Addresses ethical issues of psychotherapy research in the context of the pilot study phase of a large collaborative study that examined 2 forms of brief psychotherapy (cognitive-behavior and interpersonal) for the treatment of depression. The issues include those that emanated from the use of a clinical trials design (e.g., random treatment assignment, control conditions) and those derived from the collaborative nature of the research (e.g., comprehensibility of informed consent forms, security of data transmission). (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subject, project or self? Thoughts on ethical dilemmas for social and medical researchers

In this paper we address an important but sadly neglected area; namely some of the ethical issues which arise for social and medical researchers in the course of their work. Our concern is for a wide spectrum of researchers using the full range of social research methods from small-scale in-depth qualitative work through to large scale quantitative studies. The unifying factor is that they all have an element of contact and hence the potential for interaction between the researcher and the subject. In our experience (with the exception of some ethnographers) few if any social researchers will have had adequate training about the interactional aspects of their work. As a result they are unprepared for the ethical dilemmas and conflict of loyalties which they might experience. To understand these issues it is important to look at the context within which such research is undertaken.     

Ethical and practical issues involved in behavioral pharmacology research that administers drugs of abuse to human volunteers

Researchers carrying out non-therapeutic research that involves the administration of drugs of abuse to human volunteers can be faced with many ethical and practical questions. The history of this type of research is relatively brief, with little in the way of published information relevant to carrying out behavioral pharmacological research with human participants. The aim of this article is to raise issues that occur in most studies of this type and to provide solutions that we have found acceptable and which have been approved by a variety of institutions and regulatory agencies. Clearly, there are other approaches that would work equally as well, and we are not attempting to provide 'the' answer to many of the issues raised. We believe that raising these issues and providing our perspectives is important for stimulating others to discuss them and for all of us to strive, where possible, to reach a consensus concerning ethical practices and to become aware of gaps and pitfalls. The topics discussed range from the nuts and bolts of acquiring and keeping track of drugs, to selecting research participants and designing ethical studies that protect our volunteers while still collecting scientifically useful data.     

To Google or not to Google: Graduate students' use of the Internet to access personal information about clients.

The emergence of Internet search and social media sites now permits therapists to obtain a plethora of personal information about their clients online. These behaviors raise a number of ethical issues related to client privacy, self-determination, and informed consent. The purpose of this study is to examine student therapists' opinions and behaviors in regard to the use these websites to search for information about their clients. A national sample of 854 psychology doctoral students was surveyed in regard to their online activities, attitudes, and frequency of searching for client information online. Results showed that Internet usage is pervasive in this group, with the majority reporting daily use of search engine or social networking sites. Most participants reported that searching for information about clients online using search engines (66.9%) or social networking websites (76.8%) was “always” or “usually” unacceptable. Nevertheless, 97.8% of participants reported searching for at least one client's information using search engines in the past year; 94.4% reported searching for client information on social networking websites. Overall, student therapists reported searching for 16.5% of clients seen in the past year, using either search engine or social networking sites. The ethical and training implications of these results are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Research using intentional deception: Ethical issues revisited.

Reviews ethical issues concerning the use of intentional deception in research with human participants 10 yrs after the publication of the American Psychological Association's (1973) guidelines on the conduct of research with human Ss. Intentional deception is defined. The present status of guidelines concerning intentional deception and the incidence and extremity of deception being used are reviewed, leading to the conclusion that the former has not decreased the latter. The present author's position proscribing intentionally deceptive research is grounded in rule-utilitarian meta-ethics. Three ethical rules proscribing intentional deception in the research setting are presented. The costs to Ss, the profession, and society are reviewed, and arguments are presented against the scientific benefits claimed for deceptive instructions. In this context, the scientific problems with social psychological experimentation are discussed. Recommendations for research strategies in lieu of deception paradigms and for appropriate debriefing are offered. (50 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethical Maturity and Successful Leadership

Ethical maturity is the ability not only to judge right from wrong, but to make the right choice when issues in conflict require the individual to weight competing values when making sociotechnical decisions. While a universal metric for describing ethical maturity does not exist, scales of professional moral development based on the work of Kohlberg are useful for analyzing subordinates' ethical maturity. To be professionally successful, leaders must themselves be ethically mature, and they must seek to increase their subordinates' ethical maturity. Mentoring on ethical issues is discussed, including specific programs that leaders can use to achieve moral maturity within their company.