Wild mushroom consumption by pickers in the south of Spain: a probabilistic approach

A survey has been made of 300 habitual consumers of the eight species of wild mushrooms most often consumed in the south of Spain. The eight species selected constitute over 95% of the intake of this food in the samples studied. The mean consumption per capita of mushrooms in Spain is of 10.4 kg/year, 8.6 kg of which are consumed during the season, which lasts from between 1 and 3 months. Male pickers from the Huelva province were those who presented the largest intake, their age group being highly influenced by the species. The consumption of each mushroom studied and the total intake were adjusted/fitted to exponential distributions. These distributions could be an effective tool for toxicological or nutritional studies since they permit the evaluation of exposure that makes it possible to calculate the probabilistic risk analysis and the contribution to the reference dietary intake, respectively, for this population group.     

Red meat consumption: An overview of the risks and benefits

Red meat is long established as an important dietary source of protein and essential nutrients including iron, zinc and vitamin B12, yet recent reports that its consumption may increase the risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and colon cancer have led to a negative perception of the role of red meat in health. The aim of this paper is to review existing literature for both the risks and benefits of red meat consumption, focusing on case–control and prospective studies. Despite many studies reporting an association between red meat and the risk of CVD and colon cancer, several methodological limitations and inconsistencies were identified which may impact on the validity of their findings. Overall, there is no strong evidence to support the recent conclusion from the World Cancer Research Fund (WCRF) report that red meat has a convincing role to play in colon cancer. A substantial amount of evidence supports the role of lean red meat as a positive moderator of lipid profiles with recent studies identifying it as a dietary source of the anti-inflammatory long chain (LC) n−3 PUFAs and conjugated linoleic acid (CLA). In conclusion, moderate consumption of lean red meat as part of a balanced diet is unlikely to increase risk for CVD or colon cancer, but may positively influence nutrient intakes and fatty acid profiles, thereby impacting positively on long-term health.     

Wild game consumption habits among Italian shooters: relevance for intakes of cadmium,perfluorooctanesulphonic acid,and 137cesium as priority contaminants

ABSTRACT

The consumption habits of 766 Italian shooters (96% males, 4% females), on average 52 years old, have been investigated, in Italy, through the distribution of questionnaires delivered during shooters’ attendance to training and teaching courses, in compliance with 853/2004/EC Regulation provisions on food hygiene. The most consumed wild species recorded were pheasant > woodcock > choke among feathered animals, and wild boar > hare > roe deer among mammals, respectively. An average of 100–200 g game per serving (four servings per month) was consumed, with highest intakes of 3000 g per month; meat, liver, and heart were the preferred food items. Mammalian and feathered game was regularly consumed with friends and relatives in 83% and in 60% of cases, respectively. Accounting for an inventoried population of 751,876 shooters in Italy, it is estimated that there is regular consumption of wild game in around the 3% of the Italian population. More than 80% of responders were aware of health risks related to game handling and to food safety issues. Due to the occurrence in wild boar meat and liver of the heavy metal cadmium (Cd), the persistent organic pollutant perfluorooctan sulphonic acid (PFOS), and the radionuclide ¹³⁷cesium (¹³⁷Cs), it was possible to demonstrate the usefulness of such a food consumption database for intake assessment in this sensitive group of consumers. In high consumers of wild boar, threshold concentrations for intakes have been estimated in the ranges of 48–93 ng g^–1 for Cd, 35–67 ng g^–1 for PFOS and 0.20–0.34 Bq kg^–1 for ¹³⁷Cs.     

Risk assessment of the lead intake by consumption of red deer and wild boar meat in Southern Spain

The presence of heavy metals in big game meat may pose a risk to human health. The main objective of this paper is to carry out a risk assessment study (using a probabilistic and point-estimate approach) of lead intake by consumption of red deer and wild boar meat in Southern Spain based on Spanish data collected in the period 2003–2006. In general, the concentration levels found for wild boar meat (mean?=?1291?µg?kg^?1) were much higher than those observed in red deer meat (mean?=?326?µg?kg^?1). The results from a point-estimate risk assessment showed that the estimated average intake of lead among different exposure scenarios varied from 0.1 to 6.5 and from 0.3 to 38?µg?kg^?1?week^?1 for red deer and wild boar meat, respectively; and from 0.3 to 35?µg?kg^?1?week^?1 for individuals consuming both red deer and wild boar meat, and that the estimated intake of lead by consumption of big game meat differed significantly between hunters and non-hunters, it being higher for hunters. Besides this, results from the probabilistic risk assessment study corroborated the fact that risk is greater in hunter populations, reaching a maximum in individuals consuming only wild boar and both types of meat, with 0.4% and 0.2% of the population above the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI), respectively. Likewise, the hunter populations consuming wild boar and both types of big game meat (red deer and wild boar meat) were exposed to the maximum lead level (56?µg?kg^?1?week^?1), which corresponded approximately to 224% of the PTWI. Further data and studies will be needed to give a complete risk estimation in which it will be crucial to consider the contribution to the lead intake level of other foods in the diet of both population groups.     

Nitrites, nitrates and N-nitrosoamines in Estonian cured meat products: Intake by Estonian children and adolescents

The contents of nitrate, nitrite and N-nitrosoamines in commercial cured meat products on the Estonian market were determined for 2000-01 and 2003-04 as part of the Estonian food safety monitoring programme and the Estonian Science Foundation grant research activities. The maximum permitted levels of residual nitrites and nitrates were not exceeded in the samples analysed. However, a great variation in the content of nitrate, nitrite and N-nitrosoamines was found for all the products. The concentrations of these compounds in domestic cured meat products showed a decrease from year to year. The mean intake of nitrate, nitrite and N-nitrosoamines by Estonian children (n = 346) from cured meat products was calculated on the basis of individual intake data. The mean daily intake of nitrates was 1.7 mg, that of nitrites was 0.83 mg and that of N-nitrosoamines was 0.073 µg. In the 2000-01 study, the calculated nitrite intake exceeded the acceptable daily intake by up to 140% for 1-6-year-old children and up to 105% in 2003-04.     

Controversy on the correlation of red and processed meat consumption with colorectal cancer risk: an Asian perspective

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the relationship between meat intake and colorectal cancer risk from an Asian, particularly Korean, perspective. A report by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) published in 2015 concluded that intake of processed and red meat increases the risk of developing colorectal cancer. We conducted an in-depth analysis of prospective, retrospective, case-control and cohort studies, systematic review articles, and IARC monograph reports, which revealed that the IARC/WHO report weighted the results of studies based in Western countries more and that the correlation between intake of processed meat products and colorectal cancer incidence in Asians is not clearly supported. Among 73 epidemiological studies, approximately 76% were conducted in Western countries, whereas only 15% of studies were conducted in Asia. Furthermore, most studies conducted in Asia showed that processed meat consumption is not related to the onset of cancer. Moreover, there have been no reports showing significant correlation between various factors that directly or indirectly affect colorectal cancer incidence, including processed meat products types, raw meat types, or cooking methods. Further epidemiological studies taking each country’s food culture into consideration are required to reliably elucidate the effects of processed meat product intake, especially on cancer incidence.     

Identification of mechanically separated meat in meat products: a simplified analytical approach by ion chromatography with conductivity detection

Due to food safety concerns, the European Food Safety Authority asked for novel approaches for identifying mechanically separated meat (MSM) in meat products. In this work, a novel and simplified approach for MSM identification in meat products is presented. This approach is based on the calcium and magnesium determination by suppressed cation-exchange chromatography coupled to conductivity detection, after sample mineralisation. One hundred samples of meat products were analysed. The difference between calcium and magnesium concentration (MSM_index) was identified as the most significant parameter useful for discriminating the presence of MSM in the product. The approach was also validated by analysing simulated meat samples containing increasing percentages of MSM. Meat samples with MSM_index higher than 390 mg kg⁻¹ can be classified as MSM products, even if the MSM was obtained at high or low pressure. The protocol is applicable for MSM identification in meat products with MSM percentage higher than 25%.     

Dietary exposure assessment of Danish consumers to dithiocarbamate residues in food: A comparison of the deterministic and probabilistic approach

Probabilistic and deterministic estimates of the acute and chronic exposure of the Danish populations to dithiocarbamate residues were performed. The Monte Carlo Risk Assessment programme (MCRA 4.0) was used for the probabilistic risk assessment. Food consumption data were obtained from the nationwide dietary survey conducted in 2000–02. Residue data for 5721 samples from the monitoring programme conducted in the period 1998–2003 were used for dithiocarbamates, which had been determined as carbon disulphide. Contributions from 26 commodities were included in the calculations. Using the probabilistic approach, the daily acute intakes at the 99.9% percentile for adults and children were 11.2 and 28.2 μg kg^?1 body weight day^?1, representing 5.6% and 14.1% of the ARfD for maneb, respectively. When comparing the point estimate approach with the probabilistic approach, the outcome of the point estimate calculations was generally higher or comparable with the outcome of the probabilistic approach at the 99.9 percentile (consumers only). The chronic exposures for adults and children were 0.35 and 0.76 μg kg^?1 body weight day^?1 at the 99.9 percentile, representing 0.7% and 1.5%, respectively, of the acceptable daily intake for mancozeb and maneb at 50 μg kg^?1 body weight.     

Meat quality characteristics of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). 4: Sensory meat evaluation as influenced by age, gender and production region

The effects of age, gender and production region on the sensory characteristics of springbok M. longissimus dorsi (LD) were investigated in 19 springbok, which originated from two Nature Reserves in the Free State Province of South Africa and were divided into age (adult, sub-adult) and gender categories. The sensory characteristics evaluated were game meat aroma, juiciness, residual tissue, tenderness and game meat flavour. Age, gender and production region had an effect (P < 0.05) on different sensory ratings of the meat. Whereas production region influenced (P < 0.05) the game meat aroma, initial juiciness, sustained juiciness and residual tissue ratings of the meat, gender and age had a significant effect on only the residual tissue rating of the meat. An interaction (P < 0.01) between age, gender and production region was observed for the tenderness attribute where the males from the Gariep Nature Reserve were the only gender that showed a significantly higher tenderness rating in the sub-adult than in the adult category. Sensory ratings were linearly correlated with certain physical and chemical attributes. Warner–Bratzler shear force (kg/1.27 cm diameter) values were inversely correlated with the sensory attributes of tenderness (r = −0.70, P < 0.01), residual tissue (r = −0.68, P < 0.01) and sustained juiciness (r = −0.43; P < 0.05). Age-related effects on perceived tenderness were minor in comparison with pH effects. As the pH₂₄ of the meat increased, tenderness (r = −0.46, P < 0.05) and sustained juiciness (r = −0.54, P < 0.05) decreased significantly. No significant linear correlations were observed between the intramuscular fat (IMF) content and the sustained juiciness ratings of the meat. It can be concluded that production region had some influence on sensory characteristics of springbok meat, whilst the influence of age and gender were negligible.     

Meat quality characteristics of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). 2: Chemical composition of springbok meat as influenced by age, gender and production region

The effects of age, gender and production region on the chemical, mineral and amino acid composition of the M. longissimus dorsi (LD) muscle of springbok were investigated. There was a significant gender^*region interaction for protein content – for the four production regions it varied between 18.80 and 21.16 g/100 g. The intramuscular fat (IMF) content of the LD muscle varied between 1.32 and 3.46 g/100 g. Females (3.13 ± 0.28 g/100 g) had a higher (P < 0.05) fat content than males (1.35 ± 0.08 g/100 g). The IMF content of the adult (2.45 ± 0.26 g/100 g) and sub-adult (2.50 ± 0.28 g/100 g) categories was higher (P < 0.05) in comparison to that of the lambs (1.32 ± 0.11 g/100 g). An inverse correlation was noted between the IMF and moisture content (r = −0.49, P < 0.001) of the meat. The two main amino acids were glutamic and aspartic acid, which contributed 2.47–2.74 and 2.31–2.54 g/100 g of dry matter, respectively. Phosphorous was the predominant mineral in the LD muscle (122.92–159.78 mg/100 g of dry matter), followed by potassium (119.44–131.25 mg/100 g of dry matter) and calcium (6.57–145.18 mg/100 g of dry matter). Production region had a significant effect on the mineral and amino acid composition of the meat, while the effects of age and gender were found to be insignificant.     

Ultrasonic-assisted phosphate curing: a novel approach to improve curing rate and chicken meat quality

The effects of ultrasound-assisted phosphate curing (UPC), phosphate curing (PC), and deionised water curing (DC) on the quality of chicken breast meat were investigated. The analysis of tissue sections, low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (LF-NMR), and headspace solid-phase microextraction gas-phase mass spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) of water distribution, myofibrillary structure, and volatile components of the meat samples were performed to reveal the mechanism. Also, the curing rate, water holding capacity (WHC), and shear force of meat were assessed. The results revealed that ultrasonic-assisted salting improved the meat salting rate, WHC, and tenderness by mechanically destroying the muscle fibre structure, increasing the space between the muscle fibre bundles, promoting water migration and uniform distribution, and reducing water freedom in the treated samples. In addition, HS-SPME-GC-MS analysis revealed that PC significantly reduced the content of volatile flavour components in the chicken breast meat compared with DC (P < 0.05); however, the combination treatment with PC and ultrasonic curing could reconstruct the flavour loss caused by phosphate. Thus, our cumulative results suggest that the ultrasonic technology may effectively assist the processing technology in improving the quality of meat and reconstructing the flavour loss in meat products.     

The Sensory Quality of Meat,Game, Poultry,Seafood and Meat Products as Affected by Intense Light Pulses: A Systematic Review

The effect of intense light pulses (ILP) on sensory quality of 16 different varieties of meat, meat products, game, poultry and seafood are reviewed. Changes induced by ILP are animal species, type of meat product and fluences applied dependent. ILP significantly deteriorates sensory quality of cooked meat products. It causes less change in the sensory properties of dry cured than cooked meat products while fermented sausage is least affected. The higher fluence applied significantly changes the instrumental color values of meat, poultry, game and meat products. The use of ILP on seafood regarding its influence on sensory quality is promising.     

Dye use in fresh meat preparations and meat products: a survey by a validated method based on HPLC-UV-diode array detection as a contribution to risk assessment

The use of dyes in meats has to be monitored, due to food safety concerns. The presence of twelve dyes (Amaranth, Ponceau 4R, Carmine, Ponceau SX, Ponceau 3R, Allura Red AC, Carmoisine, Erythrosine, Sudan I, Sudan II, Sudan III and Sudan IV) in meat was investigated in 130 meat product and fresh meat preparation samples, and the dietary exposure was estimated. Carmine and Ponceau 4R were the identified dyes. Except for one sample of salami, they were regularly indicated on the label, and their concentrations were in the range 1.3–8.1 and 6.2–86.4 mg kg⁻¹ for Ponceau 4R and Carmine, respectively. Concerning fresh meat preparations, Carmine was detected in three samples, confirming that this dye is still used, although it is no longer authorised in these products. Regarding dietary exposure estimate, the daily intake from meat product consumption resulted lower than 1% of the ADI, both for Carmine and Ponceau 4R.     

Meat quality characteristics of springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis). 1: Physical meat attributes as influenced by age, gender and production region

Springbok is the most extensively cropped game species in South Africa. The effects of age (adult, sub-adult, lamb), gender and production region on the physical attributes (pH₂₄, cooking and drip loss, Warner Bratzler shear force and colour) were determined using samples of the M. longissimus dorsi (LD) muscles of 166 springbok. Stressed animals had a higher (P < 0.05) pH₂₄ (6.3 ± 0.07), as observed in the meat originating from the Caledon region. This meat had lower (P < 0.05) cooking loss (27.2 ± 0.62%) and drip loss (1.8 ± 0.08%) values in comparison to meat originating from the other regions. Inverse correlations were noted between pH₂₄ and drip loss (r = −0.26, P < 0.01) and cooking loss (r = −0.42, P < 0.001). Shear force values (kg/1.27 cm diameter) correlated positively (r = 0.25, P < 0.01) with pH₂₄. Age-related effects on tenderness were small in comparison with pH₂₄ effects. CIELab colorimetric values were typical of game meat and venison (L^* < 40, high a^* and low b^* values). It was noted that pH₂₄ correlated negatively (r = −0.51, P < 0.001) and positively (r = 0.33, P < 0.001) with the hue-angle and the chroma value of colour, respectively. Springbok originating from Caledon had a significantly (P < 0.05) higher a^* value, indicating meat to be more red with higher colour saturation.     

Effect-based and chemical analysis of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in smoked meat: a practical food-monitoring approach

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are generated by heat treatment and smoke curing of meat, pose a risk to human health. At present, the determination of these unwanted contaminants requires costly, time-consuming chemical analysis of smoked meat. An alternative is effect-directed high-throughput bioassays, which could also be used as a pre-screening method. The authors recently adapted the in vitro chemical-activated luciferase gene expression (CALUX) assay as a rapid, sensitive, and inexpensive screening technique for compounds such as dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls, and PAHs. The aim of the present study was to apply a practical approach under realistic conditions. Custom-made meat samples produced under defined conditions with different PAH levels were analysed using this bioassay and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) to determine the influence of different smoking conditions (temperature and duration) on PAH levels. It was found that cold smoking for up to 6 h did not result in strong PAH contamination, whereas hot (65°C) and longer smoking times caused a considerable increase in both the bioassay response and the levels of 31 individually determined PAHs. The response in the effect-based bioassay was in good agreement with the values of chemical analysis. The bioassay made it possible to determine accurately the degree of contamination. The results show that this assay is suitable for high-throughput screening for unknown levels of toxicologically relevant PAHs in meat samples and is sensitive enough to differentiate between different PAH levels generated under various smoking conditions. Effect-based screening techniques, therefore, provide a new instrument for official food monitoring.     

Development and validation of a probabilistic second-order exposure assessment model for Escherichia coli O157:H7 contamination of beef trimmings from Irish meat plants

A second-order quantitative Monte Carlo simulation model was developed for Escherichia coli O157:H7 contamination of beef trimmings in Irish abattoirs. The assessment considers initial contamination levels, cross-contamination and decontamination events during the cattle slaughter process. The mean simulated prevalence of E. coli O157:H7 on trimmings was 2.36% and the mean simulated counts of E. coli O157:H7 on contaminated trimmings was -2.69log(10)CFU/g. A parallel validation survey provided some confidence in the model predictions. An uncertainty analysis indicated that microbial test sensitivity is a significant factor contributing to model uncertainty and requires further investigation while also indicating that risk reduction measures should be directed towards reducing the hide to carcass transfer (correlation coefficient 0.25) during dehiding and reducing the initial prevalence and counts on bovine hides (correlation coefficients 0.19 and 0.16, respectively). A characterisation of uncertainty and variability indicating that further research is required to reduce parameter uncertainty and to achieve better understanding of microbial transfer in meat plants. The model developed in this study highlights the need for further development of quantitative risk assessments in the food industry.     

Estimates of dietary exposure to bisphenol A (BPA) from light metal packaging using food consumption and packaging usage data: a refined deterministic approach and a fully probabilistic (FACET) approach

The FACET tool is a probabilistic model to estimate exposure to chemicals in foodstuffs, originating from flavours, additives and food contact materials. This paper demonstrates the use of the FACET tool to estimate exposure to BPA (bisphenol A) from light metal packaging. For exposure to migrants from food packaging, FACET uses industry-supplied data on the occurrence of substances in the packaging, their concentrations and construction of the packaging, which were combined with data from a market research organisation and food consumption data supplied by national database managers. To illustrate the principles, UK packaging data were used together with consumption data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS) dietary survey for 19–64 year olds for a refined deterministic verification. The UK data were chosen mainly because the consumption surveys are detailed, data for UK packaging at a detailed level were available and, arguably, the UK population is composed of high consumers of packaged foodstuffs. Exposures were run for each food category that could give rise to BPA from light metal packaging. Consumer loyalty to a particular type of packaging, commonly referred to as packaging loyalty, was set. The BPA extraction levels used for the 15 types of coating chemistries that could release BPA were in the range of 0.00005–0.012 mg dm^–2. The estimates of exposure to BPA using FACET for the total diet were 0.0098 (mean) and 0.0466 (97.5th percentile) mg/person/day, corresponding to 0.00013 (mean) and 0.00059 (97.5th percentile) mg kg^–1 body weight day^–1 for consumers of foods packed in light metal packaging. This is well below the current EFSA (and other recognised bodies) TDI of 0.05 mg kg^–1 body weight day^–1. These probabilistic estimates were compared with estimates using a refined deterministic approach drawing on the same input data. The results from FACET for the mean, 95th and 97.5th percentile exposures to BPA lay between the lowest and the highest estimates from the refined deterministic calculations. Since this should be the case, for a fully probabilistic compared with a deterministic approach, it is concluded that the FACET tool has been verified in this example. A recent EFSA draft opinion on exposure to BPA from different sources showed that canned foods were a major contributor and compared results from various models, including those from FACET. The results from FACET were overall conservative.     

Cymbopogon citratus leaves: Characterization of flavonoids by HPLC–PDA–ESI/MS/MS and an approach to their potential as a source of bioactive polyphenols

Leaves from cultivated Cymbopogon citratus were extracted with methanol, 80% aqueous ethanol and water (infusion and decoction) and the extracts were assessed for their antiradical capacity by 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay; the infusion extract exhibited the strongest activity. Tannins, phenolic acids (caffeic and p-coumaric acid derivatives) and flavone glycosides (apigenin and luteolin derivatives) were identified in three different fractions obtained from an essential oil-free infusion, and a correlation with their scavenger capacity for reactive oxygen species was studied. The tannin and flavonoid fractions were the most active against species involved in oxidative damage processes. In the flavonoid fraction, representing 6.1% of the extract, thirteen compounds (O- and C-glycosylflavones) were tentatively identified by high performance liquid chromatography, coupled to photodiode-array and electrospray ionization mass spectrometry detectors (HPLC–PDA–ESI/MS), nine of which were identified for the first time in this plant, all of them being C-glycosylflavones (mono-C-, di-C- and O,C-diglycosylflavones). The potential beneficial and protective value of the identified polyphenols for human health is discussed.