Self-monitoring and dating relationships.

Four investigations, with 479 university students, examined the involvement of self-monitoring propensities in dating relationships. Studies 1 and 2 examined willingness to change dating partners and form close, intimate dating relationships with other partners. Only Ss high in self-monitoring, as measured by the Self-Monitoring Scale, were willing to terminate current relationships in favor of alternative partners. In Study 3, for those involved in multiple dating relationships, high self-monitoring Ss reported having dated a greater number of partners in the preceding year than low self-monitoring Ss; for those in steady, exclusive dating relationships, low self-monitoring Ss reported having dated their current partner for considerably longer than high self-monitoring individuals. Study 4 examined growth of intimacy in dating relationships. The link between length of relationship and level of intimacy was more pronounced for low than high self-monitoring Ss. Findings suggest that high self-monitoring individuals adopt an "uncommitted" and low self-monitoring individuals a "committed" orientation toward dating relationships. Implications for understanding the evolution of intimate relationships, including marital ones, are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personality and sexual relations.

Examined the relationship between self-monitoring propensities and orientations toward sexual relations among 116 female and 139 male undergraduates, who completed the Self-Monitoring Scale, questions pertaining to previous and anticipated overt sexual behavior, and attitudinal indices regarding sex without commitment and casual sex. Factor analysis revealed that high self-monitoring Ss tended to establish an unrestricted orientation toward sexual relations (e.g., having sex with others to whom they were not necessarily psychologically close), whereas low self-monitoring Ss tended to establish a restricted orientation (e.g., they would have sex only with partners to whom they were psychologically close). At the behavioral level, high relative to low self-monitoring Ss indicated that they had a larger number of different sexual partners within the preceding year, could foresee themselves having sex with a larger number of different partners within the next 5 yrs, and were more likely to have engaged in sex with someone on only 1 occasion. At the attitudinal level, low compared to high self-monitoring Ss indicated that they would be more reluctant to have sex with someone to whom they were not committed and that they would be more uncomfortable with, and less likely to enjoy engaging in, casual sex with different partners. Possible explanations for these contrasting orientations are discussed. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender differences in evaluations of tobacco and alcohol advertisements.

Examined the relation between gender and reactions to different styles of advertising tobacco and alcohol products among 41 females and 34 males (aged 12–16 yrs) and their parents (39 mothers and 36 fathers). Self-monitoring was also examined as a possible correlate. Ss rated magazine advertisements oriented toward the product's image or qualities. Girls liked image-oriented advertisements more and perceived them to be more persuasive than quality-oriented advertising. This gender difference was not observed among adults. All Ss liked image-oriented more than quality-oriented advertising. Moreover, image-oriented advertisements were seen as more persuasive than quality-oriented advertisements by girls' parents who were high in self-monitoring. Results suggest that girls in early adolescence may be particularly attentive to image-oriented commercials that portray smoking and drinking as desirable behaviors. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Immediate and long-term recognition and generalization of advertised products as a function of age and presentation mode.

Examined 30 preschoolers' (aged 3–5 yrs), 30 kindergartners', and 30 2nd graders' immediate and long-term recognition memory for advertised products following an audio, video, or audiovisual presentation of commercials. A 3?×?3 factorial design was employed, with presentation mode (visual only, auditory only, and combined auditory and visual) and age of S as the factors. Ss recognized advertised products more often following exposure to visual or audiovisual commercial presentations than to auditory presentations. Age differences were detected for immediate and long-term product recognition. An errors analysis revealed that Ss of all 3 ages reported being exposed to nonadvertised foods that were members of the same class as the advertised products more frequently than would have been expected by chance. Findings are discussed in terms of the generalized effects of children's TV advertising. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reactions to child custody decisions involving homosexual and heterosexual parents.

Examined the effects of gender and sexual orientation of petitioning parents on attitudes about child custody decisions among 274 undergraduates who were either high or low in homophobia. In Phase 1, Ss completed the Heterosexual Attitudes Toward Homosexuals Scale and the Kinsey Heterosexual-Homosexual Rating Scale that were embedded in a general questionnaire on social attitudes. In Phase 2, the same Ss were asked to give their opinions about the outcome of contrived custody cases where the parent winning custody was homosexual or heterosexual. There was less support for a homosexual than a heterosexual parent. This was particularly noticeable for male Ss. Unexpectedly, mothers were not favored over fathers; instead, Ss favored parents of their own gender. Ss who scored low in homophobia reacted more favorably to a homosexual parent than a heterosexual parent, while the reverse was true for those scoring high in homophobia. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of piece-rate overpayment on productivity.

Investigates why a number of equity studies have reported that piece-rate overpayment leads to low productivity. It has been argued that low productivity is a side effect of overpaid Ss striving for higher quality, or that Ss actually try to reduce their feelings of inequity by reducing their production, thereby reducing their pay outcomes. To determine the reason for the low productivity, a task was developed upon which striving for high quality would not necessarily lead to lower productivity. Data from 37 randomly selected Ss showed that overpaid Ss produced significantly less than equitably paid Ss, and that low productivity of overpaid Ss could not be attributed to their striving for higher quality. It is concluded that when faced with overpayment, Ss try to reduce their outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Focusing on the exterior and the interior: Two investigations of the initiation of personal relationships.

Tested the hypothesis that the construct of self-monitoring would identify individuals who characteristically adopt distinctly different orientations when initiating dating relationships. In each of 2 studies, low and high self-monitoring men chose a female partner for a date. In Study 1, attentional differences in the initial information-seeking stage of relationship initiation in an open-field setting were examined with 19 high- and 20 low-scoring Ss on a self-monitoring scale. In Study 2, actual choices of dating partners were examined where one type of desirable attribute in a partner had to be sacrificed in order to obtain another type of desirable attribute. 16 high- and 16 low-scoring Ss on a self-monitoring scale participated. Behavioral and self-report evidence revealed that in both the initial information-gathering stage and the actual choice of whom to date, low self-monitoring Ss paid a greater amount of attention to and placed greater weight on information about interior personal attributes than did high self-monitoring Ss; by contrast, high self-monitoring Ss paid more attention to and put greater weight on exterior physical appearance than did low self-monitoring Ss. (28 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of slogans and human model characteristics in product advertisements.

Conducted a study with 96 adult male office workers to test the effect of slogans and human models on the credibility of advertisements, likeability, and intention to buy the advertised product. The slogan variations consisted of the use of nonqualified (one-sided communication) and qualified (two-sided communication) slogans. The model variations consisted of advertisements presented with a male model, a female model, a male-female model pair, and with no model. 3 consumer nondurable products frequently consumed by both males and females and often advertised in the printed media were used. Results reveal that Ss perceived the advertisements with the qualified slogans as more credible. The use of the male-female model pair also created greater credibility for the advertisement, and resulted in greater liking for and intention to buy the advertised product. Results are discussed in terms of existing theories of attitude change. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Achievement attributions and self-instructions under competitive and individualistic goal structures.

Investigated whether competitive and individualistic goal structures elicit achievement cognitions that have been associated with helpless vs mastery-oriented children, respectively. 88 5th- and 6th-grade children were administered a novel achievement task in which a high vs low performance outcome was manipulated by varying the number of solvable puzzles across 2 sets of 6 puzzles, within either a competitive or individual goal structure. A "thought-matching" methodology was used to assess the type of frequency of Ss' thoughts. Results revealed that Ss made more ability attributions in the competitive than in the individual condition. In the individual condition, Ss displayed a mastery orientation in that they made more effort attributions and engaged in self-instructions and self-monitoring more than did Ss in the competitive condition. Ability attributions were predictive of Ss' positive and negative affective reactions. Results suggest that Ss were thinking about responses to the question "Was I smart?" in the competitive setting but were thinking about "How can I do this task?" in the individual setting. It is suggested that getting children to think about how to improve their performance may not be compatible with the focus of attention in competitive situations. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Masculinity of smokers and the masculinity of cigarette images.

It was hypothesized that the more masculine a smoker's personality, the more masculine the image of the smoker's regular brand of cigarette. The masculinity of 40 male and 40 female college-age smokers was measured with the Fe scale (CPI) and Mf scale (MMPI). Ss then stated their regular brand of cigarette and rated the masculinity of 13 top-selling cigarettes, including their own. Both groups had low but statistically significant positive correlations between their masculinity, on the Fe scale, and the rated masculinity of their cigarette. The results are interpreted as providing moderate support for the belief that product preference is a predictable interaction between the consumer's personality and the product's image. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptions of ability and related affects in task involvement and ego involvement.

Conducted 5 studies to determine if 207 high school and college students would employ different conceptions of ability in different achievement situations. Each experiment involved a 2 (task vs ego involvement) by 2 (low vs high effort) design. In self-referenced (task-involving) situations, Ss employed a less differentiated conception of ability: Judgments of greater competence and more positive affects were associated with higher effort when performance was controlled. In interpersonally competitive (ego-involving) testing situations, Ss employed a more differentiated conception of ability. Given a fixed level of performance, Ss judged their ability lower when they worked harder than others and higher when they worked less than others. They also expected to feel more guilty when they did not try hard, but more embarrassed when they did. It is concluded that effort is a double-edged sword in ego-involving conditions, but not in task-involving conditions. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of expecting to be liked on choice of associates.

This study investigated one of the factors which the authors felt influenced the strong tendency of people to choose to associate with others they perceive as similar to themselves, the fear of being disliked by dissimilar strangers. As predicted, it was found that if Ss felt it was important to talk with people who would like them, they more often chose to interact with similar than dissimilar people. A 2nd group of students, assured that all members of all groups would be told they were "not likable" and thus presumably concerned about making others like them, were also more anxious than control Ss to talk with similar people. If Ss were assured that all members of all groups would be told they were "likable" Ss were much more willing to associate with dissimilar groups of people than with similar ones. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-presentation by association.

Prior research has shown that individuals try to manage their public images indirectly by announcing their (sometimes trivial) connections with successful rather than unsuccessful others, thereby basking in the reflected glory of another's success and avoiding the shadow of another's failure. The present research indicates that such attempts at impression management through association are substantially more varied and sophisticated than previously considered. Ss learned privately that they shared a birth date with an individual who had been described in favorable or unfavorable terms. Depending on the experimental condition, Ss announced or suppressed this connection strategically to achieve the image management goals of either modesty or compensatory favorable self-presentation. In all, for purposes of self-presentation, our subjects treated the characteristics of a superficially connected other as if they were positive or negative features of themselves. Theoretical implications are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of continuous and intermittent self-monitoring on academic behavior.

Conducted a project with 27 undergraduate Ss dealing with review preparation for the general aptitude portions of the Graduate Record Examination. A linear teaching machine programed with quantitative and verbal problems was employed. The Ss were randomly assigned to 4 conditions: (a) continuous self-monitoring, (b) intermittent self-monitoring, (c) performance feedback, and (d) control. Self-monitoring Ss were instructed to record their progress by pressing a counter on either a continuous or intermittent schedule following correct answers. Performance-feedback Ss received information on the accuracy of their responding but were not given the opportunity to self-monitor. Control Ss received neither self-monitoring instructions nor performance feedback. Results show that self-monitoring Ss remained for significantly longer review sessions and that this effect was more pronounced under the continuous rather than the intermittent schedule. Self-monitoring Ss also displayed significantly better accuracy on quantitative problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

莱钢齿轮钢生命周期及产品策略分析

介绍了莱钢20CrM nTi齿轮钢近几年生产发展、市场占有率及利润变化的情况,并运用生命周期理论判定该产品已处于生命周期成熟期。从提高现有产品质量、细分产品市场、完善营销管理体系、加强联系合作、采取直销方式等方面,提出稳固现有产品市场、延长该产品成熟期的相关措施;从积极开发性能更优越的新型齿轮钢,并慎重选择分销商、调整营销渠道、尽快树立新产品品牌形象等方面,提出开发新产品和拓展市场的相关策略。     

Young children's preoccupation with their own payoffs in strategic analysis of 2?×?2 games.

72 4–10 yr olds played 3 mixed-motive games, each game having one dominating strategy. Half of the Ss first chose their own strategy and then guessed what the other player (experimenter) chose; the other half proceeded in the reverse order. Ss at all ages showed a preoccupation with their own payoffs and a lack of interest in the other player's payoffs. Although the younger Ss centered on their maximum payoff, older Ss were able and willing to pay attention to the other player's interests, but only if doing so helped them to improve their own strategy. This developmental improvement seems due to the growing ability to coordinate 2 players' strategies. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Peers as mediators of television food advertisements aimed at children.

Past research on the effects of TV has focused primarily on it as a unitary force rather than as 1 source of influence in a network of cross-pressures. The present study attempted to determine how peer-modeled food preferences combined with TV food commercials to influence the food preferences of school-aged children. 40 Black and 40 White 4th graders were assigned randomly to 1 of 4 conditions: TV control, TV advertisements with similar peer-modeled food preferences, and TV advertisements with dissimilar peer-modeled food preferences. An additional 40 children served as peer models. Ss in the TV advertisement condition preferred foods in the same class as the advertised foods more frequently than did Ss in the TV control condition. Ss in the TV advertisement/peer-similar condition preferred foods like the advertised food more often than Ss in the TV advertisement condition, whereas Ss in the TV/peer-dissimilar condition preferred foods like the advertised food less frequently than did Ss in the TV advertisement condition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

For whom does the bell toll?: The true tragedy of the Atlanta youth murders.

Interviewed 427 parents (or pairs of parents) from Atlanta, Cleveland, and Tuscaloosa between February and May of 1981 to assess the effects of the murders of Black youths in Atlanta on Ss. Ss were almost equally divided by race and city. Black parents of Atlanta and Tuscaloosa, where the threat seemed more real, reacted by attempting to protect their children. By a ratio of 5 to 1, Black Ss were more willing to believe that the murderer was White and that the killings were racially motivated. Black Ss were twice as likely as Whites to feel that the effects of the murders were further racially divisive. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comparing traditional and integrative learning methods in organizational training programs.

Previous research and anecdotal reports have suggested that when certain teaching approaches are used, students not only learn more but also experience greater satisfaction with the training process. This study examined the effects of integrative-learning (IL)-based training in relation to lecture-based training. Employees enrolled in a 3-day manufacturing resource planning training course were randomly assigned to either IL or traditional training. Ss reacted more favorably to IL-based training. Trained Ss performed significantly better than those in a no-treatment control group, but no differences were noted between training interventions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prototype matching: A strategy for social decision making.

116 college students responded to a series of questionnaires while they were in the process of selecting housing from a choice of 7 available options for the coming fall. Questionnaires concerned their self-concepts, housing prototypes, preferences in housing, and goals in housing selection. Ss also completed a self-monitoring scale. Analyses of the self-to-prototype matching strategy suggest that most Ss preferred the type of housing for which their prototype of the "representative" resident most closely matches their self-perceptions. Individual differences in attention to self-fit in situations were observed. Among Ss who reported that they had interpersonal goals in the housing selection task, those who reported that many personality characteristics (both positive and negative) were untrue of self were more systematic in their use of the self-to-prototype matching rule; this was also true of low self-monitors. Neither pattern of individual differences were obtained for Ss with practical goals in the housing decision. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)