Social consequences of apologetic, assertive, and aggressive requests.

Each of 60 female undergraduates was asked by a female confederate (CF) to leave a room. The CF made the request, using an aggressive, assertive, or apologetic expressive style, after the female experimenter had previously told each S that it was important for her to stay in the room (high sacrifice) or had not said anything about staying in the room (low sacrifice). The manipulation of the CF's expressive style significantly affected Ss' ratings of the CF such that the aggressive style produced more negative social evaluations than both the apologetic and assertive styles. Increasing the sacrifice involved in Ss' compliance to the request significantly reduced both the amount and speed of compliance. Results suggest that to teach clients how to maintain positive social relationships, assertion trainers should continue to focus on teaching the distinction between assertion and aggression. With regard to the instrumental effectiveness of a request, findings suggest that situational constraints on the target of the request are more important than the way in which the request is phrased. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stomach acid secretion in submissive and aggressive rats.

Conducted 4 experiments with 60 female and 162 male Long-Evans rats to determine whether aggressive and submissive behavior are related to either an increase or a decrease in gastric secretion. In Exp I, intruder rats placed in an established male–female colony and attacked by a dominant alpha male secreted less acid than intruders exposed to nonaggressive males and females. In Exp II, intruders exposed to attack and subsequently returned to the encounter site, but protected from physical attack, still demonstrated a gastric hyposecretion. Ss with chronic gastric cannulas in Exp III also revealed an acid inhibition when attacked and later when exposed to, but protected from, attack. Both intruders and attacking males were prepared with gastric cannulas in Exp IV. Both demonstrated secretory inhibition following attack and attack-protected sessions. The inhibitory effect was greater and more persistent for intruders than for aggressive Ss. It is suggested that the inhibition occurring during the attack-protected sessions may have been mediated by some conditioning processes, and other possible associative mechanisms, including a learning model or a direct sensory model, are discussed. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Immune responses in male mice with aggressive and submissive behavior patterns: strain differences

Geminiviruses are being used as convenient autonomously replicating vectors for foreign gene amplification in plants. Using tissue culture techniques, they have been adapted for the analysis of the regulation of gene expression in a wide range of hosts, including both mono- and dicotyledonous species. In monocotyledonous plants that are particularly recalcitrant to transformation, geminivirus symptom-induction has been used as a sensitive marker for DNA uptake.     

Covert modeling, imagery assessment, and assertive behavior.

Conducted an investigation to (a) examine the effect of 2 variables in developing assertive behavior using covert modeling and (b) develop a technique to assess ongoing imagery during treatment. Ss were 54 18-61 yr olds. In a 2 * 2 design, the number of models imagined (imagining several models vs imagining a single model perform assertively) and model reinforcement (imagining favorable consequences following model behavior vs imagining no consequences) were combined. A nonassertive-model control group that imagined assertion-relevant scenes was included in the design. Results indicate that imagining multiple models or model reinforcement enhanced behavior change across self-report inventories and a behavioral role-playing test. Treatment effects transferred to novel role-playing situations and were maintained at a 4-mo follow-up assessment. Assessment of imagery during the session corroborated the adherence of Ss to the imagery conditions to which they were assigned. However, Ss systematically introduced elaborations into the scenes. Data suggest the importance of assessing imagery in covert conditioning therapy studies. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Person, situational, and interactional influences on assertive behavior.

Explored the validity of the College Self-Expression Scale (CSES) in the context of 3 alternative models of behavior: personism, situationalism, and interactionalism. 72 high- and 72 low-assertive female college students role-played scenes requiring assertive behavior. The scenes varied on 3 situational dimensions: positive–negative assertion, male–female, and familiar–unfamiliar partner. The dependent measures were content, appropriateness of affect, and duration of reply. Results support the concurrent validity of the CSES and the role of both person and situational, but not interactional, influences on assertion. Implications for assertion training, for using the CSES, and for concept-utilizing assertive behavior are discussed. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Involuntary subordination and its relation to personality, mood, and submissive behavior.

According to social rank theory, involuntary subordination may be adaptive in species that compete for resources as a mechanism to switch off fighting behaviors when loss is imminent (thus saving an organism from injury). In humans, major depression is thought to occur when involuntary subordination becomes prolonged. The present study sought to operationalize involuntary subordination. Study 1 involved a reanalysis of a Gilbert and Allan (1998) study, with the hypothesis that social comparison (i.e., perceived status), submissive behavior, feelings of defeat, and entrapment would load on a common factor (interpreted as involuntary subordination). Exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis supported this model. In Study 2 measures of these same variables were administered to a group of undergraduate students. Eight items were selected from each measure (on the basis of item-total correlations) to form the Involuntary Subordination Questionnaire (ISQ). In Study 3 scores on the ISQ showed high levels of internal consistency and test–retest reliability in a sample of undergraduate students. Scores on the ISQ were significantly positively correlated with various neurotic personality styles and negatively correlated with variables indicating dominance or mastery. Involuntary subordination scores also significantly predicted change in social anxiety symptoms over 9 weeks. In Study 4 scores on the ISQ were examined in relation to nonverbal behaviors. In men, the ISQ was correlated with behaviors indicating a lack of confidence and submissiveness. Involuntary subordination appears to be a relatively stable trait with implications for personality, mood, and real-world behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Locus of control, interpersonal trust, and assertive behavior among newlyweds.

This study related 2 cognitive personality characteristics—locus of control and interpersonal trust—to assertive behavior in a sample of recently married couples. For 86 childless couples who had been in their 1st marriages for less than 1 yr, assertive behavior was measured by the Inventory of Marital Conflicts, an observational procedure in which couples resolve disagreements about hypothetical marital problems. Hypotheses were formulated in terms of individual locus of control (Rotter's Internal–External Locus of Control Scale) as well as 2 combinations of locus of control and interpersonal trust (Rotter's Interpersonal Trust Scale): internal–low trust and external–high trust. Results show that internal husbands were more assertive than external husbands in the marriage conflict situation, that external–high trust husbands were least assertive, and that internal–low trust wives were highly assertive. Findings are interpreted in light of previous locus-of-control and trust research, and in terms of unconventional marital role behavior. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relationship of TV viewing habits and aggressive behavior in children.

Information about TV habits, (a) length of time watched and (b) extent of violence in favorite programs, was obtained from 689 mothers and 522 fathers in individual interviews having to do with the psychosocial antecedents of aggressive behavior in their children. This information was related to ratings of aggressive behavior of 3rd-grade children made by their peers. It was found that there was a significant positive relationship between the violence ratings of favorite programs as reported by both mothers and fathers and aggressive behavior of boys as rated in school. Also there was a significant negative relation between total time watched by boys as reported by mothers and aggressive behavior. The results for fathers' reports in this latter case were in the same direction, although not significant. No consistent relationships were noted between girls' TV habits as reported by either mother or father and aggression as rated in school by the peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of conceptual complexity on assertive behavior.

Postulated that information-processing style is an important cognitive skill for effective assertive behavior and identified conceptual complexity (CC) as the variable that defined Ss' information-processing approach. In 2 studies, 146 undergraduates differing in CC were compared in their performance on various measures relevant to competent assertive behavior (e.g., Assertiveness Knowledge Inventory, the Hypothetical Behavior Role-Playing Assertion Test, and the Assertiveness Self-Statement Test). In Exp I, high CC Ss (e.g., those who possessed abstract schema for processing social information) demonstrated greater content knowledge, direct delivery skill, and fewer negative self-statements that inhibit assertiveness. Exp II involved the testing of various hypotheses about the specific role of CC in assertive encounters. High vs low CC females were more assertive in difficult situations (e.g., interaction with close friends) but did not differ in simple situations. High CC Ss were more assertive in extended interaction tests, expressed consideration of the needs of others, and were more flexible in sex-role orientation. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the wisdom of assertive job-seeking behavior.

Employer ratings of 16 frequently advocated assertive job-seeking behaviors were summarized in terms of whether or not each would enhance or diminish the applicant's chances for being offered employment. These ratings were further subjected to an Applicant Sex?×?Industry Size MANOVA. Data were derived from 272 employers listed as business or industrial organizations in the 1981 College Placement Annual. Some behaviors were clearly adaptive; others appeared to be self-defeating. The applicant's sex proved irrelevant to hiring decisions; however, company size influenced the employment potential of 5 assertive behaviors. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An information feedback program for the development of assertive behavior.

Developed and compared "high" and "low" information treatment programs for assertiveness. The high information program consisted of a highly structured and sequenced procedure involving modeling, videotape feedback, behavioral rehearsal, and several other components, while the low information control program involved a less elaborate procedure with fewer components. The effects of coping vs mastery model were also studied. 40 female undergraduates were assigned to a balanced 2 (information level)?×?2 (model type) ANOVA design. The primary dependent variables included the Conflict Resolution Inventory (CRI) and several behavioral measures. Results revealed that all groups produced gains on most measures, but the high information group proved superior, especially on the behavioral indices. The high information effects also generalized better to both similar and dissimilar role-playing situations. Type of model yielded weak effects on the CRI and no effects on the behavioral and generalization measures. Further, groups did not differ at posttest in responding to a reasonable request, and all were in the appropriately compliant range. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Power moves: Complementarity in dominant and submissive nonverbal behavior.

Two studies examine complementarity (vs. mimicry) of dominant and submissive nonverbal behaviors. In the first study, participants interacted with a confederate who displayed either dominance (through postural expansion) or submission (through postural constriction). On average, participants exposed to a dominant confederate decreased their postural stance, whereas participants exposed to a submissive confederate increased their stance. Further, participants with complementing responses (dominance in response to submission and submission in response to dominance) liked their partner more and were more comfortable than those who mimicked. In the second study, complementarity and mimicry were manipulated, and complementarity resulted in more liking and comfort than mimicry. The findings speak to the likelihood of hierarchical differentiation (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of covert modeling and model reinforcement on assertive behavior.

Investigated the effect of covert modeling in developing assertive behavior in 45 17-52 yr olds. Nonassertive Ss received covert modeling (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively), covert modeling plus reinforcement (imagined scenes in which a model performed assertively and favorable consequences followed model performance), no modeling (imagined scenes with neither an assertive model nor favorable consequences), or delayed treatment (no-treatment controls who subsequently received either covert modeling or modeling plus reinforcement). In 4 treatment sessions, both model and model-reinforcement conditions improved significantly on self-report inventories (Conflict Resolution Inventory, Action Situation Inventory, Wolpe-Lazarus Assertive Training Scale, and Wolpe's Willoughby Scale) and a role-playing test of assertiveness. The modeling-reinforcement group tended to show greater assertiveness at posttreatment assessment and follow-up. The effects of covert modeling were maintained up to a 3-mo follow-up assessment. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Observational validation of a peer nomination technique for identifying aggressive, withdrawn, and aggressive/withdrawn children.

Membership in peer-identified aggressive, withdrawn, or aggressive and withdrawn groups and in a nondeviant contrast group was predicted based on quantitative observations of playground behavior. Subjects were selected from a pool of 174 fifth and sixth graders who had completed the Pupil Evaluation Inventory. Of 43 selected aggressive, withdrawn, aggressive and withdrawn, and contrast subjects, 65% were correctly classified, based on their behavior on the playground. These results confirm the ability of peers to identify children who show specific patterns of atypical social interaction. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An experimental investigation of behavior rehearsal in assertive training.

Developed a standardized, semiautomated, behavior rehearsal treatment procedure, and compared 2 variations of this procedure, 1 with performance feedback and 1 without, with 2 control procedures, a placebo therapy, and a no-treatment condition, in training 42 undergraduates to be more assertive. Behavorial, self-report, and psychophysiological laboratory measures, as as an unobtrusive in vivo assertive test, revealed that the 2 behavior rehearsal procedures resulted in significantly greater improvements in assertive performance than did the control conditions. There was a nonsignificant tendency for behavior rehearsal coupled with performance feedback to show the strongest treatment effects. (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of distressed and aggressive behavior.

Two studies examined the hypothesis that distressed behavior induces negative emotions in others but also prompts solicitousness and deters aggression. In Study 1, 48 marital dyads rated various behaviors in terms of their feelings and reactions toward a spouse engaging in each behavior. Distressed behavior prompted both negative and solicitous emotions, but deterred hostile reactions. Aggressive behavior prompted negative feelings and hostile and argumentative reactions. In Study 2, 41 couples rated videotaped examples of a woman engaging in distressed, aggressive, or neutral behavior, with variations in verbal content and nonverbal affect. Examples of distressed behavior prompted more negative feelings and more solicitous feelings than neutral behavior. Aggressive examples prompted more negative feelings and hostile reactions. The studies indicate the importance of distinguishing between distressed and aggressive behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Treatment of parental stress to enhance therapeutic change among children referred for aggressive and antisocial behavior.

This study evaluated a parent problem-solving (PPS) intervention designed to augment the effects of evidence-based therapy for children referred to treatment for aggressive and antisocial behavior. All children (N=127, ages 6-14 years) and their families received problem-solving skills training (PSST), and parents received parent management training (PMT). Families were randomly assigned to receive or not to receive an additional component (PPS) that addressed parental stress over the course of treatment. Children improved with treatment; the PPS intervention enhanced therapeutic change for children and parents and reduced the barriers that parents experienced during treatment. The implications of the findings for improving evidence-based treatment as well as the limitations of adding components to treatment are detailed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior.

Investigated social desirability responding in the measurement of assertive behavior. 30 22–56 yr old middle-class women completed self-report and analogue behavioral measures of assertion and anxiety before and after assertiveness training. The measures included the Assertion Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and role-played assertiveness scenes during a telephone call. Consistent with social desirability theory and research, high social desirability scorers described themselves as more assertive and less anxious than low scorers, but were behaviorally less assertive than low scorers. Although both high and low scorers improved their assertion skills, high scorers did not appear less anxious after assertiveness training, unlike low scorers. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in assertive behavior: An empirical investigation.

Assertion training for women has been justified on the basis that women are generally less assertive than men or that women have unique problems in being assertive. A review of the literature for sex-related data from self-report measures of assertion indicated that without exception males report higher frequencies of assertive behavior than females. The means are significantly different, however, for only 4 (29%) of the 14 samples reviewed. Differential responding for males and females on individual items from the Adult Self Expression Scale was investigated using 4 samples of a total of 294 male and 408 female Ss. Men reported themselves as more assertive than women on items dealing with bosses and supervisors. Men also reported themselves as being more outspoken when stating opinions and as taking the initiative more readily in social contacts with members of the opposite sex. Women, on the other hand, reported themselves as more assertive in expressing love, affection, and compliments, as well as expressing anger to one's parents. The question of how these sex differences in assertive behavior are affected in assertion-training groups composed entirely of women is discussed. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a task analysis of assertive behavior

Conceptualized assertiveness problems in terms of a task analysis of the topography of competent responding. 47 male and 54 female undergraduates who ranged from extremely nonassertive to highly assertive (according to their scores on the Conflict Resolution Inventory) responded to 3 sets of situations requiring refusal of an unreasonable request. Content knowledge of an assertive response, delivery of the response under 2 conditions, heart rate, self-perceived tension, and the incidence of positive and negative self-statements were assessed. Differences on these variables between low-assertive (LA), moderate-assertive (MA), and high-assertive (HA) groups were analyzed to determine the nature of the response deficit in nonassertive Ss. LA Ss differed from MA and HA Ss on role-playing assessments requiring them to deliver an assertive response, but they did not differ from MA and HA Ss on their knowledge of a competent response or on hypothetical delivery situations. No significant differences in heart rate were observed between LA, MA, and HA Ss; however, higher self-perceived tension was found in LA compared to MA and HA Ss. A greater number of negative and fewer positive self-statements were reported by LA compared to MA and HA Ss. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)