Just who favors in in-group? Personality differences in reactions to uncertainty in the minimal group paradigm.

Researchers have proposed that people identify with and discriminate in favor of their groups to reduce subjective uncertainty (e.g., M. A. Hogg & D. Abrams, 1993). The authors examined whether individual differences in uncertainty orientation (R. M. Sorrentino & J. C. Short, 1986) are relevant to this process. Following B. A. Mullin and M. A. Hogg (1998), participants (N?=?147) were either categorized or not categorized under conditions of low or high task uncertainty when allocating resources using a matrix task. As expected, only certainty-oriented people (who gravitate toward certainty, are biased by group processes, and use heuristics under uncertainty) showed in-group bias under conditions of high uncertainty. This was unaccompanied by increased identification, certainty ratings, or self-esteem. The authors suggest that personality variables directly relevant to uncertainty resolution be considered in these processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of group counseling on self-esteem.

Investigated the influence of group counseling on self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and hostility in 3 groups of adult women: 24 middle-class women; 9 women who received provincial social assistance (i.e., longer than 3 mo); and 15 who received city social assistance (i.e., less than 3 mo). All Ss completed pre- and posttests of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale and the Multiple Affect Adjective Check List before and after a series of group counseling sessions on practical, personal, and social issues. Results show that the women receiving provincial social assistance had significant changes in the level of self-esteem; it is suggested that these women, nearly half of whom were either single or divorced (compared with Ss who received city social assistance who were almost all separated and the middle-class Ss who were almost all married), perceived a need change in their lives. Because of their relatively stable marital and financial status (i.e., husbands gone for some time and social assistance providing funds), they were not forced to spend a good deal of time in self-exploration and were consequently responsive to treatment. (22 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intergroup norms and intergroup discrimination: Distinctive self-categorization and social identity effects.

Manipulation of in-group and out-group norms of discrimination and fairness allowed for the operation of competing social identity principles concerning in-group bias, conformity, and group distinctiveness. The combined effects of these principles on in-group bias were first examined in a modified minimal-group setting (Study 1). Results demonstrated that participants' allocation strategies were in accord with the in-group norm. Furthermore, dissimilar norms resulted in greater use of positive differentiation allocation strategies. However, in natural groups (Study 2), more in-group bias was found when both group norms were similar and discriminatory. The results confirm the importance of in-group norms and demonstrate differences between experimental and natural groups in the applicability of competing social identity and self-categorization principles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Attractiveness of group as function of self-esteem and acceptance by group.

"Persons made to feel well accepted in a group found the group more attractive than did those made to feel poorly accepted. But this difference was significantly greater among persons with low self-esteem… low self-esteem being taken as an indication of strong need for acceptance. Some support was given to the additional predictions that attractiveness of membership in a group varies directly with need for acceptance when a group is accepting and inversely when a group is non-accepting." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-anchoring and differentiation processes in the minimal group setting.

In-group favoritism in the minimal group setting was hypothesized to be a function of 2 processes: a tendency to base in-group judgments on the self (self-anchoring) and a tendency to assume 1 group to be the opposite of the other (differentiation). In the first 3 experiments, in which the order of rating the self and target group was varied, categorized and uncategorized participants were given trait information about 1 group and were asked to estimate the level of those traits in the other group. In-group judges tended to base group ratings on the self, whereas out-group and uncategorized judges inferred the 2 groups to be opposite of one another. Experiment 4 attempted to directly assess the direction of inference between self and in-group by giving feedback about self or in-group on unfamiliar dimensions and found that participants were more willing to generalize from self to in-group than from in-group to self. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why minority group members perceive or do not perceive the discrimination that confronts them: The role of self-esteem and perceived control.

Self-esteem and perceived control were examined to explain why minority group members sometimes perceive discrimination but, more often, minimize the discrimination. Women (Study 1), and Asians and Blacks (Study 2) reacted to negative feedback after information about the probability for discrimination. Minority group members tended to minimize discrimination and attributed their failure to themselves. By perceiving discrimination as a reason for failure, minority group members protected their performance state self-esteem. In contrast, by minimizing discrimination, they protected their social state self-esteem and maintained the perception of control in the performance and social domains. Results suggest that minority group members minimize discrimination because the consequences of doing so are psychologically beneficial. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

The effects of group expectations and self-esteem upon self-evaluation.

This study explores the effect of a specific level of achievement upon an individual's evaluations of his performance when the achievement is relative to an aspiration level set by a group and to the member's stabilized expectations about himself as represented by his self-esteem. Ss were assigned to one of 4 conditions, composed of the combinations of high and low group expectations and relevance and non-relevance of task to the purposes of the group. Half of the Ss within each experimental condition were allowed to succeed and the other half made to fail. Several specific hypotheses within this framework were tested. "The group's expectations appear to have been more potent as a scale of reference than the individual's self-esteem in determining his evaluation of his performance. When the influence of the group was weakest (task was non-relevant) persons high in self-esteem… differed in the way they evaluated their performance. When the influence of the group was strongest (task was relevant) there was no difference in the way that persons high or low in self-esteem rated their achievement." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of individual and group identity salience in the global self-esteem of youth.

Combined 9 specific self-ratings into a scale that used various weightings in an attempt to maximize correlations with global self-esteem measured by 2 content-free scales and to determine whether the content-free scales would tap the same self-esteem dimensions as the summated 9-factor scale. Ss were 1,528 7th, 9th, and 11th graders. Results suggest that measures based on summations of a large number of specific self-ratings tap a somewhat different phenomenon than content-free global scales. The most effective weighting of specific dimensions for predicting global self-esteem depended on group-identity salience rather than individual-identity salience—group means of the importance of the separate self-evaluation dimensions rather than each S's self-rating of the importance of that dimension. This result held even when interactive models of weighting were used. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intergroup relations and group solidarity: Effects of group identification and social beliefs on depersonalized attraction.

An intergroup extension of M. A. Hogg's (1992, 1993) social attraction hypothesis is proposed. Netball teams were investigated with measures assessing the relationship between (a) objective status; (b) "social beliefs" about intergroup status, stability, legitimacy, and permeability; (c) group identification, self-categorization, and prototypicality; (d) interpersonal relations and similarity; (e) depersonalized social attraction; and (f) true personal attraction. As predicted, group-membership based social attraction was directly influenced by self-categorization; indirectly influenced, through self-categorization, by intergroup status and stability beliefs; and uninfluenced by interpersonal relations. Social attraction (related to prototypicality and group identification) was relatively independent of personal attraction (related to similarity and interpersonal variables). Legitimacy, permeability, and the empirical co-occurrence of social and personal attraction in cohesive groups are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social categorization and discriminatory behavior: Extinguishing the minimal intergroup discrimination effect.

Previous research on the minimal intergroup discrimination effect suggests that (a) apparently random social categorization may be sufficient to induce differential responses toward similarly and dissimilarly categorized others and (b) perceived categorical similarity (or intragroup vs intergroup comparisons) may be the basis for the effect. Four experiments were conducted with 227 undergraduates to provide 2 independent tests of the hypotheses. Exps I and II demonstrated that social categorization resulting from a lottery procedure was sufficient to elicit differential allocation of chips to and differential social evaluation of in- and out-group members. Exp III and IV demonstrated that both information about the reward value of the in-group and information about the reward value of the out-group had an impact on Ss' discriminatory behavior. The directions of the effects were opposite: rewards from the in-group increased and those from the out-group decreased discriminatory behavior. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Ethnicity and perceived discrimination in Toronto: Another look at the personal/group discrimination discrepancy.

Perceptions of personal and group discrimination in 5 domains (jobs, pay, loans, promotions, and clubs) were investigated via telephone interviews with 902 respondents from different ethnic groups in Toronto. The reported analyses concern 6 ethnic groups, representing "visible," racial minorities (Blacks, Chinese, and South Asians) as well as White minorities (Italians, Jews, and Portuguese). The personal/group discrimination discrepancy (i.e., perceiving greater discrimination toward one's group than oneself personally) was observed to varying extent across all domains and ethnic groups, though with some exceptions. Visible minorities perceived greater discrimination toward their group than did White minorities, especially in the economic domains of jobs, pay, and promotions. Among visible minorities, Black respondents perceived higher levels of group and personal discrimination than most other ethnic groups across domains, followed in turn by Chinese and South Asian respondents. By contrast, White minority group members perceived considerably less group or personal discrimination than members of visible minorities, except for Jewish respondents who reported greater group discrimination in joining clubs than any other ethnic group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of social identity and threat on self-esteem and group attributions.

Two studies were conducted to examine reactions and coping responses to a threatened group identity. In both studies, participants were asked to read a (fictitious) report that varied whether their group received a good or bad evaluation. In Study 2, the report also gave an internal or external reason for the rating. Study 1 showed that participants made more positive affirmations about an important group membership when their group had been threatened. They also made an equal number of internal and external attributions when they identified strongly with their group. Study 2 showed that participants who were given a group-serving attribution when their group had been threatened had higher self-esteem than those not given a group-serving attribution, especially if they identified strongly with their group. These results are discussed in the context of social identity theory and biased information processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived discrimination and women's psychological distress: The roles of collective and personal self-esteem.

In the spirit of counseling psychology's social justice mission (e.g., L. A. Goodman, B. Liang, J. E. Helms, R. E. Latta, E. Sparks, & S. R. Weintraub, 2004), the authors examined perceptions of discrimination against women as related to women's views of the group women, their views of themselves as individuals, and their psychological distress. Path analysis was used to test an extended chain of mediation from perceptions of discrimination to public collective self-esteem, private collective self-esteem, personal self-esteem, and finally to psychological distress. Data (N = 235) were consistent with hypotheses and indicated a good fit for the model. Results were in accord with feminist theorists' assertions of the harmful nature of sexist discrimination, as the model accounted for substantial proportions of variance in depression and anxiety. Furthermore, these findings on mechanisms by which harm may be induced offer important clues for prevention and intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The view from below: Intergroup relations from the perspective of the disadvantaged group.

This study examined how disadvantaged group members perceive and respond to members of a disadvantaged out-group and an advantaged out-group. Three experiments revealed that a disadvantaged out-group was harmed more and seen as more homogeneous when its own performance was similar to or better than the in-group, and when it was in the presence of an advantaged out-group that performed similar to or better than the in-group. Conversely, an advantaged group was harmed more and seen as more homogeneous when its own performance was worse than the in-group, and when it was in the presence of a disadvantaged out-group that performed worse than the in-group. The results were interpreted in a social comparison framework, suggesting that responses to outgroups are influenced by their status and performance as well as the performance of other out-groups in the situation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceived discrimination as worldview threat or worldview confirmation: Implications for self-esteem.

In 3 studies, the authors tested the hypothesis that discrimination targets' worldview moderates the impact of perceived discrimination on self-esteem among devalued groups. In Study 1, perceiving discrimination against the ingroup was negatively associated with self-esteem among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview (e.g., believed that individuals of any group can get ahead in America and that success stems from hard work) but was positively associated with self-esteem among those who rejected this worldview. Study 2 showed that exposure to discrimination against their ingroup (vs. a non-self-relevant group) led to lower self-esteem, greater feelings of personal vulnerability, and ingroup blame among Latino Americans who endorsed a meritocracy worldview but to higher self-esteem and decreased ingroup blame among Latino Americans who rejected it. Study 3 showed that compared with women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is pervasive, women informed that prejudice against their ingroup is rare had higher self-esteem if they endorsed a meritocracy worldview but lower self-esteem if they rejected this worldview. Findings support the idea that perceiving discrimination against one's ingroup threatens the worldview of individuals who believe that status in society is earned but confirms the worldview of individuals who do not. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with discrimination: How disadvantaged group members perceive the discrimination that confronts them.

Two experiments examined how disadvantaged group members perceive the discrimination that confronts them. Women reacted to negative feedback after receiving information about the probability that they had been discriminated against. In both experiments, attribution to discrimination was a function of situational ambiguity. When discrimination was certain, participants attributed their failure to discrimination. When discrimination was ambiguous, however, participants minimized discrimination and attributed their failure to themselves. The second experiment investigated the role of perceived control in the minimization of personal discrimination. Results indicated that disadvantaged group members were reluctant to blame their performance on discrimination because they were placing control for their outcomes in the hands of others rather than their own. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The moderating roles of self-esteem and neuroticism in the relationship between group and individual undermining behavior.

The authors developed and tested a multilevel interactive model of the relationship between group undermining and individual undermining behavior in 2 multiwave studies of group members. Integrating the literature on group influences on individual behavior with the individual difference literature, the authors predicted a 3-way Group Undermining × Self-Esteem × Neuroticism interaction, such that the relationship between group and individual undermining would be strongest among those simultaneously high in self-esteem and neuroticism. The 3-way interaction was supported in Study 1 (457 participants in 103 groups) and replicated in Study 2 (415 participants in 93 groups) with additional controls and alternative measures of key constructs. The authors discuss the implications of the research and identify future research directions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intergroup competition for public goods: Effects of unequal resources and relative group size.

Studied single-stage intergroup competition for public goods in small groups with total resources of equal size and binary contributions. In Experiment 1, the two competing groups were of equal size, but the individual resources (endowments) within each group differed from one member to another. The main finding was a negative relation between the endowment size and the likelihood of contribution. In Experiment 2, the ratio of public good to endowment was the same for all members of both groups, but sizes of the groups were unequal. We found no effect of group size per se on level of contribution. Theoretical and methodological implication of the findings are briefly discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lesbian and gay male group identity attitudes and self-esteem: Implications for counseling.

96 lesbians and gay men (aged 18–46 yrs) completed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and a modified version of J. E. Helms and T. A. Parham's (1985) Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS). Based on W. E. Cross's (1971, 1978) model of African-American identity development, the RIAS assesses 4 distinct psychological stages (preencounter, encounter, immersion-emersion, and internalization), which are thought to correspond to a parallel process in the development of gay male and lesbian group identity attitudes. Consistent with findings among other minority groups, the results indicated a moderate inverse relationship between preencounter attitudes and self-esteem and a positive relationship between internalization attitudes and self-esteem. Encounter and immersion-emersion attitudes were (nonsignificantly) negatively correlated with self-esteem. Implications for counseling gay men and lesbians are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Putting the group in your pocket: Using collective identity to enhance personal and collective self-esteem.

Social identity theory argues that individuals rely on group memberships to form and protect their self-concepts. The authors tested this assumption in therapy groups by teaching members to rely on their group's membership during their day-to-day activities. Participants in the control condition received general information about therapy, whereas those in the experimental condition were guided through an examination of the value of their therapy group and carried a card with them that symbolized their group membership. After 1 week, group members who received the intervention had greater private collective self-esteem than those who did not receive the intervention. The authors' findings support both social identity theory and the utility of interventions designed to enhance the psychological impact of the therapeutic group. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)