A methodology for Cartesian braiding of three-dimensional shapes and special structures

Cartesian three-dimensional braiding as a method of preforming has been investigated. The design of complex and unusual 3-D braids was studied in three parts. These are the grouping of yarns, the fabrication of braids with a complex cross-section, and braids with surrogate material (replacing fibrous tows) added or removed. The grouping of yarns to potentially form hybrid composites was studied via an iterative simulation of the braiding process. Through further analysis of the braid cycles which produce specific yarn grouping, it was found that isolation/insertion rows and columns may be used to quarantine yarns within desired areas of preform cross-section and improve interlacing of the braided structure. In this study, the design of braided composite cross-sectional shape is accomplished through adaptation of the Universal Method. A computer algorithm has been developed which allows the desired cross-sectional shape to be specified and a braid plan for its fabrication automatically determined. A number of 3-D braids, the result of variations or extensions to Cartesian braiding, are also presented. These have been classified as those with axial and transverse yarn insertion, structures with voids, and fillers and fasteners. Braiding equipment has been developed to braid the designed structures. The machines have been used to fabricate four-step braids with transverse, fastener, and filler insertion, special hybrid structures from multiple row and column displacement and multi-step cycles, and uniquely shaped structures with constant and varying cross-sections along their lengths.     

Prediction of the yarn trajectories on complex braided preforms

Braiding can be used to manufacture preforms for resin transfer moulding (RTM). With braiding, many yarns are used, non-geodesic yarn paths are possible, and the interlaced structure of braids provides typical mechanical properties such as high impact strength. Previously, several models were developed to predict the fibre angles on simple, stationary braided preforms, but not for complex, non-axisymmetric preforms. This paper presents a fast and efficient model to predict the fibre angles on complex biaxially braided preforms. The model is verified with experiments on two mandrels and the experimental and numerical results show good agreement.     

三维四步方形编织结构的几何建模

研究三维复合材料的编织结构是分析这种材料力学性能的前提。从三维编织工艺和实际的编织过程出发,针对方形编织结构提出了一种单元几何模型。该模型以携纱器循环一周返回到起始位置所形成的纱线编织结构作为单元,保证了纤维束的连续性和材料整体结构的完整性。对每根纱线,选取它在编织体各个区域内合适的控制点,过这些控制点拟合成三次样条曲线,以此模拟纱线的空间结构中心线。最后得到纱线和编织体的结构。     

三维六向编织复合材料弹性性能理论预测

在三维六向编织物纱线运动规律的基础上, 建立了单胞模型, 推导了编织参数之间的数学关系。基于该模型, 采用改进的刚度平均化方法, 导出了三维六向编织复合材料的工程弹性常数, 分析了编织角和纤维体积含量对弹性性能的影响。结果表明, 三维六向编织复合材料具有良好的力学性能, 由于面内纬纱的加入, 使面内的力学性能得到了提高。      

The effect of yarn distortion on the mechanical properties of 3D four-directional braided composites

A representative volume cell (RVC) is chosen to analyze the mechanical properties of 3D (3 dimensions) four-directional braided composites. Owing to braid yarns (an assembly of fibers) squeezing against each other in the braided composites, the braid yarns are distorted. Based on geometrical characteristics of the braided composites, cross-section of each braid yarn is supposed to be an octagon and divided into seven regions in the RVC. The distortion characteristics of yarns are considered in each region. Elastic properties of each region obtained by stochastic function theory are introduced into finite element model to calculate the mechanical properties of the RVC. The influences of yarn distortion on the stiffness and strength of the braided composites are obtained and discussed.     

Micro-CT Characterization on the Meso-Structure of Three-Dimensional Full Five-Directional Braided Composite

The meso-structure is important in predicting mechanical properties of the three-dimensional (3D) braided composite. In this paper, the internal structure and porosity of three-dimensional full five-directional (3DF5D) braided composite is characterized at mesoscopic scale (the scale of the yarns) using micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) non-destructively. Glass fiber yarns as tracer are added into the sample made of carbon fiber to enhance the contrast in the sectional images. The model of tracer yarns is established with 3D reconstruction method to analyze the cross-section and path of yarns. The porosities are reconstructed and characterized in the end. The results demonstrate that the cross sections of braiding yarns and axial yarns change with the regions and the heights in one pitch of 3DF5D braided composites. The path of braiding yarns are various in the different regions while the axial yarns are always straight. Helical indentations appear on the surfaces of the axial yarns because of the squeeze from braiding yarns. Moreover, the porosities in different shapes and sizes are almost located in the matrix and between the yarns.     

Process simulation and fabrication of advanced multi-step three-dimensional braided preforms

The fundamentals of multi-step braiding for the fabrication of three-dimensional fibre preforms for composites have been studied. To facilitate the understanding of the complex multi-step braiding processes, a computer simulation algorithm has been developed. The simulation acts as a tool to allow the identification of individual yarn paths, number and location of yarn groups, and braid geometry. It was found that individual control of the rows and columns of yarn carriers on a Cartesian braiding bed allows for the fabrication of advanced multi-step braids; the micro-structural possibilities of three-dimensional braids are thus greatly extended. Some basic relationships of the braiding parameters have been identified. It has been concluded that the traditional four-step and two-step braidings are special cases of multi-step braidings. To verify the feasibility of the structures, experimental investigations have also been carried out. Innovative braid architectures have been designed and fabricated using a prototype multi-step braiding machine.     

三维编织中纱线的运动规律分析

三维编织通过携纱器的间歇运动,使编织纱线彼此相互交织。编织纱线趋向于沿携纱器运动的方向运动。本文作者采用最小二乘法拟合携纱器的运动趋势线,系统地分析了编织过程中纱线的空间运动规律。在此基础上,获得的预制件结构单胞模型包含内部单胞和表面单胞。单胞的取向平行于预制件的表面,有利于材料的力学性能分析。     

三维七向编织结构细观分析

根据三维编织的主要工艺, 系统地分析了三维七向编织物纱线的面内和空间运动规律。在此基础上,建立了能反映其基本结构的几何单胞模型, 并推导了编织参数之间的数学关系, 为进一步分析三维七向编织复合材料的力学性能奠定了基础。      

Circular braiding take-up speed generation using inverse kinematics

Circular overbraiding of composite preforms on complex mandrels currently lacks automatic generation of machine control data. To solve this limitation, an inverse kinematics-based procedure was designed and implemented for circular braiding machines with optional guide rings, resulting in a take-up speed profile for a given braid angle distribution on mandrels with complex 3D shapes including non-axisymmetric, optionally eccentric cross-sections that can vary in shape and size along an optionally curved mandrel centerline, allowing a curved machine movement. This procedure reduces the problem size, resulting in a short computation time, fit for CAE process chain integration. Numerical control data was generated for a complex mandrel with a specified braid angle and a triaxial braid. A simulation using this control data yields a braid angle that deviates a few degrees from the specified braid angle. The simulation was validated experimentally, using the generated instructions to control the braiding machine. This showed a deviation from the simulated braid angle of 3 degrees in the centered, non-tapered mandrel regions, up to 10 degrees in tapered regions and an experimental scatter of 7 degrees. The deviation is mainly attributed to the neglect of yarn interaction and guide ring contact friction in the model, leading to an incorrectly modeled convergence zone length.     

A new analytical model for calculation of stiffness of three-dimensional four-directional braided composites

The present paper represents a new analytical method for calculation of the stiffness of three-dimensional four-directional braided composites. In most previous works, the analytical approach had been largely neglected in the favor of the finite element model. Among those who have used the analytical model, the braided preform has been considered as made of one, or three, types of representative unit cells, while microscopic evidence of the microstructure of preforms reveals different configurations of the yarns in the interior, surface and corner regions of a braided preform. This paper presents a Multi-Unit Cell Model in which four kinds of unit cells, namely interior, interior surface, exterior surface and corner unit cells have been introduced as representative cells. Each type of unit cell in a braided composite possesses unique mechanical properties and has been considered as a uni-directional composite. Using rotation matrices, the angle between yarns and longitudinal direction has been incorporated in general coordinates of the model. Finally, using a volume averaging method, the total stiffness of the braided composite is calculated. The results are in good agreement with the available experimental data. The effect of braiding angle on the stiffness of braided composites is also examined.     

用共编纱制备热塑性复合材料

介绍了一种制备增强纤维/热塑性纤维混杂纤维束的新方法——共编法,通过改变编织工艺参数、纤维丝束大小、纤维种类、编纱和轴向纱的数量等制备了一系列GF/PP共编纱。以此共编纱,成功地制备出GF/PP复合材料板材,并研究了成型压力、成型温度以及保温时间等对复合材料的预浸及板材质量的影响;同时,对增强纤维种类、丝束大小及其含量等对复合材料中空隙含量的影响也进行了研究;采用圆形模型探讨了GF/PP共编纱中树脂对玻璃纤维的预浸过程,提出了影响预浸效果的主要因素。     

基于预制体边界反射方法的三维四向编织复合材料几何建模

针对预制体中纱线路径复杂,几何建模耗时较长的问题,提出了一种预制体边界反射(PBR)方法,有效地缩短了几何建模过程中建立纱线运动模型的计算时间.在此基础上,开发了基于SolidWorks软件的CAD仿真建模系统,可模拟不同编织参数下的三维编织预制体整体结构.与传统建模方法相比,PBR方法可在不影响预制体几何建模精度的前提下,明显缩短仿真时间.因此,可明显提高编织工艺设计的效率.该方法为复杂几何结构预制体的细观结构和机械性能研究奠定了基础.     

Geometrical modelling and control of a triaxial braiding machine for producing 3D preforms

Braiding is a relatively less explored textile process for producing composite preforms. Biaxial braids can be produced as hoses and subsequently be draped over different three-dimensional surfaces. However, triaxial braids are relatively stable structures and should be produced to the desired shape during the braiding process. This is achieved by over-braiding on mandrels that either form part of the finished composite or removed before the moulding process. Triaxial braided composites have superior mechanical properties due to fibre orientations along three directions.Geometry of a braided structure depends on the number of yarn carriers, rotational speed of the carriers, take-up speed and the effective perimeter of the cross-section of a mandrel. In the present work, a VRML based geometrical visualisation tool has been developed to simulate a braid structure on any predefined mandrel geometry, and using a predefined yarn cross-section. Braid angles, cover factors and yarn volume fractions can be computed from these simulations. A triaxial braiding machine has been developed with an independent servo control of the carrier movement and the take-up mechanism; geometrical simulation is used as an input to the control system to continuously vary the braid structure along the length of a mandrel. Flexible tooling is important for rapid product development. A flexible mandrel has been developed that can be mechanically adjusted to change the cross-section and the taper. This system enables rapid development of braided preforms.     

典型多向2.5D机织预制体近净形编织结构设计

针对多向异型复合材料构件用3D整体预制体,基于衬经2.5D机织结构,提出5种近净形转向仿形编织工艺,设计并制备了具有典型引纱加纱结构的板条状预制体试样。采用计算机断层扫描法(Micro-CT),观测各系统纱线横截面形态变化和纱线取向分布规律,发现引出加入的纱线沿织物厚度方向挤紧状态发生改变,其横截面从椭圆形变成梯形,又变为三角形,经纱被引出和加入会造成与其接触的纬纱横截面变化。结合复合材料构件的实际承载工况,对具有5种引纱加纱结构的复合材料试样进行了经向抗弯性能测试,结果表明,复合材料的弯曲强度和弯曲模量保持率分别达到82.6%~95.7%和89.1%~97.9%。可见,立足于满足复合材料力学性能要求,发展预制体的三维整体仿形编织技术,是实现复杂形状复合材料构件材料/结构一体化制造的有效途径。      

三维全五向编织复合材料的细观结构分析

针对三维全五向编织复合材料,研究了其四步法编织工艺的实现过程,并详细描述了编织复合材料各控制区域内纱线的空间走向及运动规律,在此基础上建立了能反映三维全五向编织复合材料基本结构的几何单胞模型。通过分析编织物内纱线间的空间挤压关系,设定合理的假设,计算了全五向编织复合材料的纤维体积含量,并分析了纤维体积含量与编织工艺参数之间的关系,为进一步研究该材料的力学性能奠定了基础。     

A yarn interaction model for circular braiding

Machine control data for the automation of the circular braiding process has been generated using previously published mathematical models that neglect yarn interaction. This resulted in a significant deviation from the required braid angle at mandrel cross-sectional changes, likely caused by an incorrect convergence zone length, in turn caused by this neglect. Therefore the objective is to use a new model that includes the yarn interaction, assuming an axisymmetrical biaxial process with a cylindrical mandrel and Coulomb friction. Experimental validation with carbon yarns and a 144 carrier machine confirms a convergence zone length decrease of 25% with respect to a model without yarn interaction for the case analyzed, matching the model prediction using a coefficient of friction of around 0.3.     

A novel processing technique for thermoplastic manufacturing of unidirectional composites reinforced with jute yarns

This paper primarily investigates the fabrication process of long-fibre reinforced unidirectional thermoplastic composites made using jute yarns (both untreated and treated). Tubular braiding technique was used to produce an intermediate material called “microbraid yarn” (MBY) with jute yarn as the straightly inserted axial reinforcement fibre and polymer matrix fibre being braided around the reinforcing jute yarns. Microbraid yarns were then wound in a parallel configuration onto a metallic frame and compression molded to fabricate unidirectional composite specimens. In this study, two types of polymeric materials (biodegradable poly(lactic) acid and non-biodegradable homo-polypropylene) were used as matrix fibres. Basic static mechanical properties were evaluated from tensile and 3 point bending tests. Test results were analyzed to investigate the effects of molding temperature and pressure on the mechanical and interfacial behaviour. For the unidirectional jute fibre/poly(lactic) acid (PLA) composites, the results indicated that the molding condition at 175 °C and 2.7 MPa pressure was more suitable to obtain optimized properties. Improved wettability due to proper matrix fusion facilitated thorough impregnation, which contributed positively to the fibre/matrix interfacial interactions leading to effective stress transfer from matrix to fibre and improved reinforcing effects of jute yarns. For the jute/PP unidirectional composites, specimens with only 20% of jute fibre content have shown remarkable improvement in tensile and bending properties when compared to those of the virgin PP specimens. The improvements in the mechanical properties are broadly related to various factors, such as the wettability of resin melts into fibre bundles, interfacial adhesion, orientation and uniform distribution of matrix-fibres and the lack of fibre attrition and attenuation during tubular braiding process.     

三维编织复合材料悬臂梁的振动特性

基于三维四向和五向编织复合材料的细观结构和单胞模型, 对三维四步法矩形截面编织复合材料悬臂梁的振动阻尼性能进行了理论分析, 研究了编织角、 纤维体积分数等工艺参数对材料振动阻尼特性的影响, 并与实验结果进行了对比。对三细胞模型进行了改进, 采用混合律得到了材料的总体刚度, 进而得到一阶固有频率。此外, 还分别计算了一个周期内不同走向纱线和基体振动消耗的能量, 以及总振动能量, 得到了材料的损耗因子。结果表明, 对于三维四向和五向编织复合材料, 一阶固有频率随编织角的增加而减小, 随纤维体积分数的增加而增大; 而损耗因子随编织角的增加而增大, 随纤维体积分数的增加而减小, 并表现出明显的非线性变化规律。