Proactive and retroactive priming in serial target detection.

Four experiments were concerned with priming effects that occur when participants attempt to identify each letter in a briefly presented 4-letter display. At each position of the display, 1 alternative (the target) was more probable than 4 alternatives (nontargets). The basic finding, which held true over several manipulations of display characteristics, was that retroactive effects were generally much stronger than proactive effects. These strong retroactive effects contrast with prior findings that (a) proactive effects usually dominate and (b) repetition yields inhibition (repetition blindness). This asymmetry was also noted in an additional experiment in which participants responded to only 1 letter in the array. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic and phonological priming in schizophrenia.

This study of 70 schizophrenic patients used a lexical decision task involving the recognition of words that were preceded (primed) either by meaningfully or phonologically associated or by nonassociated words to study the intrusion of contextually inappropriate associations in thought disorder (TD). The patients were split into subgroups of TD and non-TD patients, and the data from these two groups were compared with data from 44 normal control participants. TD schizophrenic patients exhibited more semantic priming than non-TD patients and controls, and differences in phonological priming dependent on stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA) were obtained. Results support the hypotheses of an increase in activation or a decrease in inhibition in the spreading of semantic and phonological associations in TD schizophrenic patients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming and sensitivity in lexical decision.

M. J. Farah (1989) argued that qualitatively different attentional mechanisms underlie perceptual and semantic priming. The crux of this argument is her claim that semantic priming, unlike perceptual priming, does not alter sensitivity. It is suggested that the evidential base for this claim is weak, and 4 experiments are reported in which semantic priming altered sensitivity. In Exps 1, 3, and 4, lexical decision was reliably primed by associates, and signal detection analyses indicated that both sensitivity and bias were affected. In Exp 2, significant semantic priming was also demonstrated with a 2-alternative forced choice paradigm in which performance is independent of criterion bias. These results challenge the claim that semantic priming does not alter sensitivity. The broader implications of these results are considered for attentional mechanisms and for J. A. Fodor's (1983, 1985) modularity claims. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming in the lexical decision task: Roles of prospective prime-generated expectancies and retrospective semantic matching.

In semantic priming paradigms for lexical decisions, the probability that a word target is semantically related to its prime (the relatedness proportion) has been confounded with the probability that a target is a nonword, given that it is unrelated to its prime (the nonword ratio). This study unconfounded these two probabilities in a lexical decision task with category names as primes and with high- and low-dominance exemplars as targets. Semantic priming for high-dominance exemplars was modulated by the relatedness proportion and, to a lesser degree, by the nonword ratio. However, the nonword ratio exerted a stronger influence than did the relatedness proportion on semantic priming for low-dominance exemplars and on the nonword facilitation effect (i.e., the superiority in performance for nonword targets that follow a category name rather than a neutral XXX prime). These results suggest that semantic priming for lexical decisions is affected by both a prospective prime-generated expectancy, modulated by the relatedness proportion, and a retrospective target/prime semantic matching process, modulated by the nonword ratio. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic, phonological, and mediated priming in reading and lexical decisions.

Four experiments were conducted to investigate whether semantic activation of a concept spreads to phonologically and graphemically related concepts. In lexical decision or self-paced reading tasks, subjects responded to pairs of words that were semantically related (e.g., light–lamp), that rhymed (e.g., lamp–lamp), or that combined both of these relations through a mediating word (e.g., light–lamp). In one version of each task, test lists contained word–word pairs (e.g., light–lamp) as well as nonword–word (e.g., pown–table) and word–nonword pairs (e.g., month–poad); in another version, test lists contained only word–word pairs. The lexical decision and self-paced reading tasks were facilitated by semantic and rhyming relations regardless of the presence or absence of nonwords on the test lists. The effect of the mediated relation, however, depended on the presence of nonwords among the stimuli. When only words were included, there was no effect of the mediated relation, but when nonwords were included, lexical decision and self-paced reading responses were inhibited by the mediated relation. These inhibitory effects are attributed to processes occurring after lexical access, and the relative advantages of the self-paced reading task are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the proactive and retroactive placement of augmented information for learning a novel computer alphabet.

The timing of augmented information, either prior to or following a memory retrieval attempt has profound, and opposing, influences on immediate performance and retention. This effect was investigated in 2 experiments in which participants learned typographical symbols used to enter information into a personal data assistant. The effects of the spacing of the second of 2 repetitions (Experiment 1) and the number of retrieval attempts during practice (Experiment 2) failed to modify the relative effectiveness of the timing of augmented information--proactive information (prior to retrieval attempt) facilitated practice but degraded retention relative to retroactive information (after retrieval attempt). The theoretical roles of the timing of augmented information relative to the functions of retrieval practice were discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming and Stroop-like interference in word-naming tasks.

Three studies with 72 undergraduates examined why a semantic relation between relevant and irrelevant stimulus components facilitates performance in priming tasks but seems to inhibit performance in Stroop-like tasks. In a series of word-naming tasks, the effect of number of semantic domains (varied concomitantly with number of response alternatives) was examined by presenting to Ss an identical set of stimuli either blocked or mixed. Exp I showed that blocked presentation yielded Stroop-like interference, whereas mixed presentation yielded semantic facilitation. Exps II and III showed that the word–word variant of the Stroop task and the word-naming variant of the semantic priming task belonged to 1 family of tasks. Both tasks showed a facilitation effect when the prime was related to the target and an interference effect when the prime was a member of the response set. In the Stroop task, response competition outweighed facilitation; in the priming task, semantic facilitation outweighed response competition. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming between spoken words in adults and children.

Used an auditory lexical decision paradigm to determine occurrence of semantic priming between spoken words and to investigate the organization of the mental lexicon in preliterate children. 30 undergraduates and 24 1st-grade children (aged 6 yrs 2 mo to 7 yrs) were tested on a lexical decision task in which Ss had to decide whether pairs of spoken items were words. In both groups, significant facilitation was found for semantically related words compared with unrelated ones. Results indicate that semantic priming occurred in the auditory modality. The fact that children benefited at least as much from and often more than adults from an appropriate semantic context suggests that the lexicon of the child is organized in the same way as the adult's as early as 6 to 7 yrs of age. (French abstract) (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming during sentence processing by young and older adults.

Examined semantic processing of sentences by 30 younger (mean age 25.1 yrs) and 30 older (mean age 68.5 yrs) adults, using a priming technique. Ss read a sentence and then made a lexical decision about a target presented immediately after the sentence. For both age groups, word targets that were instruments implied by the action of the sentence had faster latencies than unrelated word targets. There was no evidence of inhibition of unrelated targets, suggesting that the facilitation of instrument targets involved automatic processes. Results provide no evidence for age-related changes in semantic processing of sentences, including access to implied information. Older Ss did, however, have poorer memory for the sentences on a recognition test. It is suggested that previous findings by G. Cohen (see PA, Vols 63:747 and 67:958) of age deficits in comprehension may depend on techniques that measure what is remembered rather than what is understood. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming after severe closed head trauma: Automatic and attentional processes.

The 2-process theory of semantic priming (J. H. Neely, 1977; M. I. Posner and C. R. Snyder, 1975) was used to determine the maintenance of automatic processes after severe closed head injury (CHI) and to determine whether processes that demand attention suffer a deficit. Ss with severe CHI (N?=?18,?>?2 yrs postinjury) and 18 matched control Ss completed a lexical decision task in which a category prime was followed by a target. Automatic and attentional priming were determined by orthogonally varying prime–target relatedness, expectancy, and stimulus onset asynchrony. Although the CHI Ss had slower reaction times (RTs) overall, there were no significant group differences in the magnitude of either the automatic or attentional component of semantic priming. The present results indicate the integrity of semantic processes and normal semantic priming in long-term patients with severe CHI. The results are discussed in relation to an attentional resource hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming and the word repetition effect in a lexical decision task.

Two experiments were conducted with 35 university students and community residents to examine the relationship between semantic priming and the word-repetition effect in lexical decisions. Although it might be expected that these phenomena are caused by the operation of similar memory processes, given current models of word recognition, the relationship between them has not been empirically investigated. In the present study, the persistance of both effects was observed, and it was found that while facilitation due to semantic priming persisted for only a short time, the word repetition effect was quite strong and long-lasting. (French abstract) (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic priming and repetition priming from masked words: Evidence for a center-surround attentional mechanism in perceptual recognition.

Two lexical decision experiments compared semantic and repetition priming by masked words. Experiment 1 established prime–mask stimulus onset asynchronies (SOAs) with presence–absence detection judgments. Primes presented at detection-threshold SOAs produced equal facilitation for repeated and semantically related targets: 26 ms and 24 ms. Experiment 2 established SOAs with semantic judgments. Primes presented at 70% of the semantic-threshold SOA to mimic the exposure conditions of Experiment 1 produced slightly greater facilitation for repeated targets but a tendency toward inhibition for semantically related targets: 38 ms and –6 ms. These results confirm the D. Dagenbach et al (see record 1990-00392-001) report that strategies induced by threshold-setting tasks can influence masked priming. In addition, Experiment 2 suggests a mechanism for retrieving weakly activated semantic codes into consciousness that relies on the center-surround principle to enhance activation of sought-for codes and to inhibit related codes stored nearby in the semantic network. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Semantic, repetition and rime priming between spoken words: behavioral and electrophysiological evidence

Semantic, phonological and repetition priming for auditorily presented words were examined, using both behavioral reaction times (RTs) and electrophysiological event-related potentials (ERPs) measures. On critical trials, a word prime was followed by a word target that was semantically or phonologically related (rime) or not related (control) to the prime. Pairs of word-pseudoword items served as fillers. Participants were asked to respond to word targets in the RT experiment and to pseudowords in the ERP experiment. In each experiment stimuli were presented once and then repeated in the very same way. RTs were found to be fastest for semantic, intermediate for rime and slowest for control targets; large repetition effects occurred for all targets. ERPs results showed that both semantic and phonological priming influenced the same component, namely the N400, whose amplitude was smallest to semantic, intermediate to rime and largest to control targets; repetition effects were only found for semantic trials.     

Monitoring eye movements under conditions of associative matching, response production, and stimulus and response production.

Monitored eye movements in each of 3 studies with 20, 19, and 18 undergraduates, respectively, while Ss were given 8 study trials on a 7-item paired-associate list. Ss were then subjected to a single test trial of associative matching (Exp. I), response production (Exp. III) or stimulus and response production (Exp. IV). A 4th study with 42 Ss, (Exp. II), without eye movement monitoring, involved 3 groups of Ss given either 2, 4, or 6 study trials followed by a single test trial of associative matching. Results, with the exception of Exp. I, were generally consistent with a 2-stage notion of verbal paired-associate learning. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age, time of testing, and proactive interference.

A four-list version of a release from proactive interference paradigm was used to assess the degree to which older (aged 58-78 yrs) and younger adults (aged 18-32 yrs) tested at optimal and nonoptimal times of day are vulnerable to interference effects in memory, effects that may increase at nonoptimal times. Morning type older adults and Evening type younger adults were tested either early in the morning or late in the afternoon. Standard buildup and release effects were shown for all age groups except for older adults tested in the afternoon; they failed to show release. Recall and intrusion data suggested that older adults are more vulnerable to proactive interference than younger adults and that for older adults at least, interference effects are heightened at nonoptimal times of day. The data are discussed in terms of an inhibitory model of control over the contents of working memory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental processing capacity, anticipatory and retroactive abilities, and development of concrete-operational structures.

Used performance on a set of criterion logic tasks (multiplication classes, multiplication of relations, seriation, and transitivity) to assess the performance of 32 1st graders and 32 2nd graders on tests of mental processing capacity and of anticipatory and retroactive abilities, variables theoretically assumed as necessary for the attainment of logical competence. The logical tasks included measures which differentiated between figurative and operative response strategies. Findings are as follows: (a) A factor analysis indicated that the 1st 2 measures had high loadings only on the factor defined by the operative measures. (b) The measures of the M operator (J. Pascual-Leone, 1969) corresponded to previously obtained norms. (c) The relationship of this latter variable to the anticipation-retroaction and logical tasks confirmed its status as a necessary but not sufficient condition in the attainment of logical structures. Results are discussed in relation to the problems of defining the abilities that make up logical competence at the concrete-operational stage. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pathways from proactive and reactive aggression to substance use.

Childhood aggression is a known risk factor for adolescent substance use; however, aggression is a complex construct, and developmental researchers have identified a variety of subdimensions that may be germane to substance use. Very little research has examined risk pathways from subdimensions of aggression. The current study examined a developmental model and tested whether childhood proactive aggression, reactive aggression, or both were related to the development of substance use in adolescence in a sample of 126 children (mean age at initial assessment = 10.4 years, SD = 0.51). Peer rejection and peer delinquency were examined as potential mediators of these relations. The findings suggest that proactive aggression was indirectly associated with substance use through peer delinquency. Reactive aggression was also indirectly associated with substance use through a complex mediational chain, such that high levels of reactive aggression were associated with high levels of peer rejection, which in turn were associated with peer delinquency (p = .06), which subsequently predicted substance use. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Orthographic, phonological, and articulatory contributions to masked letter and word priming.

A series of experiments assessed masked priming for letters and words that are visually similar (SIM) and dissimilar (DIS) in upper- and lowercase formats. For letters, robust DIS priming was obtained in a naming task, but this priming did not extend to a variety of non-naming tasks. For words, robust DIS priming was obtained in both naming and non-naming tasks. SIM letter and word priming extended to all tasks, but the effects were generally small for letters. The restricted set of conditions for DIS letter priming suggests that this priming is mediated by phonological-articulatory processes, and the generality of DIS word priming argues that abstract orthographic codes mediate these effects. Consistent with this conclusion, priming between homophones (for both letters and words) was found in a naming task, but little word homophone priming was obtained in a lexical decision task. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for the conditioned response: The proactive effect of preexposure to potential conditioning stimuli and context change.

Three experiments with 48 cats investigated memory for CR as a function of proactive inhibition. The proactive operation was the preexposure to quasi-random presentations of the potential CS and UCS. The possible CSs were light and tone, and the UCSs were brief mild shocks to either the right or left paw, which produced a brisk leg jerk. In Exp I, all possible combinations of CS and UCS components of the eventual CR were present in the preexposure period for one or another group as in the traditional interference paradigms of human paired-associate memory research. Exp II demonstrated that the decline cannot be attributed to a strategy type of interpretation that asserts that when the retention–extinction situation occurs, Ss "backward scan" and judge themselves to be once again in the preexposure period. Performance immediately after reaching the conditioning criterion did not differ between the controls that experienced no preexposure and the experimentals, but it did so after the 10-wk retention interval. Exp III investigated the role of context in the memory deficits by maintaining the same context in the preexposure, conditioning, and memory test situations or giving the preexposure experience in an environment different from the other 2 situations. Context change greatly reduced but did not eliminate the proactive inhibition. It is concluded that the CR is readily forgotten given appropriate interference and does not differ from other kinds of learning in this respect. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)