Scientific journals and their authors' financial interests: a pilot study

BACKGROUND: The credibility of modern science is grounded on the perception of the objectivity of its scientists, but that credibility can be undermined by financial conflicts of interest. The US Public Health Service and the National Science Foundation issued regulations effective October 1, 1995, regarding the disclosure of financial interests in the submission of grant proposals. Several scientific journals have also established pertinent policies for authors and editors. The objectives of this study were: (1) to select a set of published articles and observe the degree to which a sample of authors hold a financial interest in areas related to their research that are reportable under current standards, and (2) to examine the hypothesis that significant numbers of authors of articles in life science and biomedical journals have verifiable financial interests that might be important for journal editors and readers to know. This paper measures the frequency of selected financial interests held among lead authors of certain types of scientific publications and assesses disclosure practices of authors and journals. METHOD: These objectives were applied to a pilot study of Massachusetts academic scientists who were cited as first or last author in at least one article published in 1992 in 14 leading journals of cell or molecular biology and medicine. We created a database of every original article published in 1992 by 14 leading life science and biomedical journals, supplemented by data sets consisting of (1) Massachusetts biotechnology firms, including their officers and scientific advisory boards, and (2) scientists listed as inventors on patents or patent applications registered with the World Intellectual Property Organization. RESULTS: We examined 1,105 university authors (first and last cited) from Massachusetts institutions whose 789 articles, published in 1992, appeared in 14 scientific and medical journals. Authors are said to 'possess a financial interest' if they are listed as inventors in a patent or patent application closely related to their published work; serve on a scientific advisory board of a biotechnology company; or are officers, directors, or major shareholders (beneficial owner of 10% or more of stock issued) in a firm that has commercial interests related to their research. Applying the criteria to the reference population of journals and Massachusetts academic authors, we measured the following frequencies for lead authors: 0.20 for serving on a scientific advisory board; 0.07 for being an officer, director, or major shareholder in a biotechnology firm, and 0.22 for being listed as an inventor in a related patent or patent application. The joint frequency of articles in the journals reviewed with a lead author that meets one of the three conditions is 0.34. CONCLUSIONS: One of every three articles in our sample has at least one Massachusetts-based author with a financial interest, and 15% of the authors in our sample have a financial interest relevant to one of their publications. For the year 1992, the rate of published voluntary disclosures of financial interest (as defined in our study) is virtually zero, but relatively few scientific and biomedical journals at that time required any such disclosure to journal editors and reviewers. Further research is needed to determine the effectiveness of mandatory disclosure requirements by some journals.     

The Rorschach: Toward a nomothetically based, idiographically applicable configurational model.

The authors argue that the Rorschach can and should be used best with a nomothetic foundation that adds an idiographic approach depending on the goal of the assessment. The research supporting this position is reviewed as are conceptual models that are advantageous to this conceptual position. The authors posit that method variance has a powerful impact on the measurement process. Each method is of value in some areas and of limited relevance in others. Self-report measures are most likely to be useful when interest is focused on consciously available and behavioral dimensions of functioning. Depth-oriented, indirect measures such as the Rorschach are most likely to be useful when interest is focused on unconscious, longitudinal, and structural dimensions of functioning. However, to have a full picture of human beings, heteromethod assessment is necessary to capture the full range of functioning and to implement the analytic model of assessment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Health care workers with HIV and a patient's right to know

Accidental human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection of patients in health care settings raises the question about whether patients have a right to expect disclosure of HIV/AIDS diagnoses by their health workers. Although such a right-and the correlative duty to disclose-might appear justified by reason of standards of informed consent, I argue that such standards should only apply to questions of risks of and barriers to HIV infection involved in a particular medical treatment, not to disclosure of personal diagnoses. Because the degree of risk of HIV infection is low and disclosure would also have damaging consequences for health workers, and because patient protection is available in other ways, it is argued that no such generalized right should be recognized.     

Why review articles on the health effects of passive smoking reach different conclusions

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the conclusions of review articles on the health effects of passive smoking are associated with article quality, the affiliations of their authors, or other article characteristics. DATA SOURCES: Review articles published from 1980 to 1995 were identified through electronic searches of MEDLINE and EMBASE and from a database of symposium proceedings on passive smoking. ARTICLE SELECTION: An article was included if its stated or implied purpose was to review the scientific evidence that passive smoking is associated with 1 or more health outcomes. Articles were excluded if they did not focus specifically on the health effects of passive smoking or if they were not written in English. DATA EXTRACTION: Review article quality was evaluated by 2 independent assessors who were trained, followed a written protocol, had no disclosed conflicts of interest, and were blinded to all study hypotheses and identifying characteristics of articles. Article conclusions were categorized by the 2 assessors and by one of the authors. Author affiliation was classified as either tobacco industry affiliated or not, based on whether the authors were known to have received funding from or participated in activities sponsored by the tobacco industry. Other article characteristics were classified by one of the authors using predefined criteria. DATA SYNTHESIS: A total of 106 reviews were identified. Overall, 37% (39/106) of reviews concluded that passive smoking is not harmful to health; 74% (29/39) of these were written by authors with tobacco industry affiliations. In multiple logistic regression analyses controlling for article quality, peer review status, article topic, and year of publication, the only factor associated with concluding that passive smoking is not harmful was whether an author was affiliated with the tobacco industry (odds ratio, 88.4; 95% confidence interval, 16.4-476.5; P<.001). CONCLUSIONS: The conclusions of review articles are strongly associated with the affiliations of their authors. Authors of review articles should disclose potential financial conflicts of interest, and readers of review articles should consider authors' affiliations when deciding how to judge an article's conclusions.     

Psychotherapists' legal responsibility to third parties: Does it extend to alleged perpetrators of childhood abuse?

Although psychologists generally have a legal duty only to their patients, some courts have created a duty to third parties who have been accused of child abuse. The authors review those cases and conclude that it is too soon to discern whether they represent aberrant decisions precipitated by unusual circumstances or whether they present an ominous liability trend. The authors argue that this expansion of the duty to this class of persons is contrary to the public interest. Recommendations are made to psychologists to minimize the likelihood of being sued by an aggrieved third party. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Reading disabilities: The interaction of reading, language, and neuropsychological deficits.

Reviews the book, Reading Disabilities: The Interaction of Reading, Language, and Neuropsychological Deficits by Donald G. Doehring, Ronald L. Trites, P. G. Patel, and Christina A. M. Fiedorowicz (1981). Believing that learning to read is a highly complex task involving the operation of a number of separate but interrelated component skills, the authors of this monograph argue that people who experience difficulty becoming proficient readers might be suffering not from a single common underlying disorder but, instead, from various underlying disorders reflecting deficits in these component skills. After a brief overview of the early and recent concepts of reading disabilities, the authors introduce what they consider is an objective procedure for classifying individuals who have reading problems into reading disability subtypes that presumably reflect the differential operation of these deficient component skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Medical Journal of Australia Internet peer-review study

BACKGROUND: Peer review of medical papers is a confidential consultancy between the reviewer and the journal editor, and has been criticised for its potential bias and inadequacy. We explored the potential of the internet for open peer review to see whether this approach improved the quality and outcome of peer review. METHODS: Research and review articles that had been accepted for publication in The Medical Journal of Australia (MJA) were published together with the reviewers' reports on the worldwide web, with the consent of authors and referees. Selected readers' e-mailed comments were electronically published as additional commentary; authors could reply or revise their paper in response to readers' comments. Articles were edited and published in print after this open review. FINDINGS: 60 (81%) of 74 authors agreed to take part in the study, together with 150 (92%) of 162 reviewers. There was no significant difference in the performance of commissioned reviewers before and during the study. Four articles were not included because of insufficient time before print publication. Of the remaining 56 papers, 28 received 52 comments from 42 readers (2% of readers submitted comments). Most readers' comments were short and specific, and seven articles were changed by the authors in response. INTERPRETATION: Open peer review is acceptable to most authors and reviewers. Postpublication review by readers on the internet is no substitute for commissioned prepublication review, but can provide editors with valuable input from individuals who would not otherwise be consulted. Readers also gain insight into the processes of peer review and publication.     

Does statistical language constitute a "significant" roadblock to readers' interpretations of research results?

Critics of statistical hypothesis testing mention how such tests mislead unsuspecting readers into believing that a statistically significant outcome is important and that a nonsignificant outcome is unimportant. Specifically, they mention how the term significant is misleading. In 3 experiments, the authors investigated whether statistical language influences readers' interpretations of research results. For "statistically na?ve" college students reading brief research abstracts, the term significant contributed somewhat to an overinterpretation of the results' importance. But for reading lengthier abstracts and articles, language per se was associated with no negative outcomes. Although the authors argue that "significant" language changes should not be mandated for quantitative research studies in scientific journals, if such changes are mandated, then use of the term statistical is recommended as a straightforward solution to the problem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Human services, professionals and the paradox of institutional reform

The inadequacies and injustices of human services and their resistance to reform are generally attributed to the vested interests of the professions and bureaucracies that control them. We look beyond these factors to the beliefs that underly them. We argue that the dominance of professionals and bureaucratic organization in human services is perpetuated by the belief that the social problems of mass society can be solved best by science in the form of professional expertise and by "scientific management" in the form of bureaucratic organization of services. This uncritical belief in science perpetuates a system that victimizes both professionals and laypersons. We suggest how this situation can be changed and what social policies would be necessary in order to foster such change.     

Psychologist on Capitol Hill: A unique use of the skills of the scientist/practitioner.

Congressional staff participate in a wide range of information-management activities including information acquisition, analysis, and dissemination. Those who serve on Capitol Hill have an opportunity to contribute their substantive knowledge and analytical skills to the debates surrounding issues of national importance. However, it is suggested that for those trained as scientists and/or practitioners, the political process and the fundamental evolutionary nature of social change can be unexpectedly frustrating. The roles and responsibilities of congressional staffers, the relevance of psychological training, and the employment opportunities existing for those psychologists who wish to become personally involved in the legislative process are discussed. (6 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of The Canadian law of patient records.

Reviews the book, The Canadian law of patient records by Lorne Elkin Rozovsky and Fay Adrienne Rozovsky (1984). Those concerned with ensuring the quality of patient records may look to this book for guidance. The authors observe that while the major reason for maintaining records is to record information necessary to treat the patient, they must be maintained for many other purposes: teaching, research, statistical, accreditation, audit, etc. In addition to rules of general application for the maintenance of patient records, the authors have included checklists and sample forms to good effect. However, it is beyond the scope of a 148-page volume concerned with the law across Canada to function as a comprehensive manual for any particular facility. Non-lawyer readers wishing to know more about this small corner of the law will be pleased with the authors' lucid, easy style. Their work is free of turgid legalese, although the exclusive use of the male pronoun to describe both men and women is objectionable. The Canadian law of patient records will be a welcome addition to the libraries of hospitals and other health care facilities. It will be of particular value as a reference work for administrators who must establish and revise their facility's written policies on the maintenance of records. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Review of Converging methods for understanding reading and dyslexia.

Reviews the book, Converging methods for understanding reading and dyslexia edited by Raymond M. Klein and Patricia A. McMullen (see record 2000-07104-000). In the preface to this volume, the editors Raymond Klein and Patricia McMullen promise a book that will "illustrate different approaches used by scientists to understand the complex skill of reading and its breakdown" (p. xi). As long as readers of this volume understand that Klein and McMullen are referring to "the reading of single words" (p. 1), and not the reading of sentences or paragraphs or whole texts, they will not be disappointed by this book. Indeed, Klein and McMullen have put together an impressive collection of state-of-the-art chapters by scientists who address the issue of single-word reading from a variety of standpoints and disciplines. The coverage is both extensive and intensive, and the quality of the contributions is uniformly high. Klein and McMullen have lived up to their promise of delivering a book that illustrates different approaches to understanding single-word reading and its breakdown. But have they succeeded in putting together a volume "to stimulate thought about how converging evidence from these approaches can lead to new insights and advances" (p. xi)? Of course, it is too early to tell whether researchers will be able to draw on the converging evidence in a positive way. However, I think the editors could have done more to facilitate such a process. Most readers will be struck by the fact that the volume reveals as many divergences of evidence and opinion as it does convergences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the principles in principled conservatism: The role of responsibility stereotypes as cues for deservingness in racial policy decisions.

Why do educated conservatives oppose affirmative action? Those in the "principled conservatism" camp say opposition is based on principled judgments of fairness about the policies. Others, however, argue that opposition is based on racism. The present article offers an alternative perspective that may reconcile these contradictory points of view. In 2 studies, the authors show 2 major findings: (a) that conservatives oppose affirmative action more for Blacks than for other groups, in this case women, and (b) that the relationship between conservatism and affirmative action attitudes is mediated best by group-based stereotypes that offer deservingness information and not by other potential mediators like old-fashioned racism or the perceived threat that affirmative action poses to oneself. The authors conclude that educated conservatives are indeed principled in their opposition to affirmative action, but those principles are group based not policy based. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of radiation therapy after local excision of invasive and noninvasive breast cancer

An international survey of health service user fee and exemption policies in 26 low- and middle-income countries assessed whether user fee policies were supported by measures that protect the poor. In particular, it explored whether governments were introducing a package of supportive measures to promote service improvements that benefit disadvantaged groups and tackle differential ability to pay through an effective series of exemptions. The results show that many countries lack policies that promote access for disadvantaged groups within user fee systems and quality improvements such as revenue retention at the health care facility and expenditure guidelines for local managers. More significant policy failures were identified for exemptions: 27 percent of countries had no policy to exempt the poor; in contrast, health workers were exempted in 50 percent of countries. Even when an official policy to exempt the poor existed, there were numerous informational, administrative, economic, and political constraints to effective implementation of these exemptions. The authors argue that user fee policy should be developed more cautiously and in a more informed environment. Fees are likely to exacerbate existing inequities in health care financing unless exemptions policy can effectively reach those unable to pay.     

Bioethics for clinicians: 17. Conflict of interest in research, education and patient care

A conflict of interest occurs in a situation in which professional judgement regarding a primary interest, such as research, education or patient care, may be unduly influenced by a secondary interest, such as financial gain or personal prestige. Conflicts of interest exist in every walk of life, including medicine and science. There is nothing inherently unethical in finding oneself in a conflict of interest. Rather, the key questions are whether one recognizes the conflict and how one deals with it. Strategies include disclosing the conflict, establishing a system of review and authorization, and prohibiting the activities that lead to the conflict.     

Sharing genetic origins information in donor assisted conception: views from licensed centres on HFEA donor information form (91) 4

Section 31 of the Human Fertilization and Embryology Act 1990 permits people born as a result of licensed treatments provided in the UK to seek certain information about their genetic origins held on the Human Fertilization and Embryology Authority (HFEA) Register of Information. The precise nature of such information is to be specified in Regulations that have yet to be determined by the Secretary of State. The Register comprises data submitted to the Authority by licensed centres on HFEA Donor Information Form (91) 4. This paper reports on a survey of views of licensed centres concerning the adequacy of this form and centres' experiences of gathering information from donors. The survey shows that centres' experiences vary considerably, and the authors argue that there is a case for the sharing of centres' experiences and dissemination of effective strategies. The paper further discusses the nature of information that might become available to individuals seeking information from the HFEA. While requests for non-identifying information concerning the donor cannot be made prior to 2010, any information made available then is inevitably dependent on current practice in centres. The authors conclude that current variability in practice does not best serve the interests of donor offspring who may seek information about their genetic origins.     

Using technology to explore social networks and mechanisms underlying peer effects in classrooms.

Peer interactions among children have long interested social scientists. Identifying causal peer effects is difficult, and a number of studies have used random assignment to produce evidence that peers affect each other's outcomes. This focus by sociologists and economists on whether peers affect each other has not been matched by direct evidence on how these effects operate. The authors argue that one reason for the small number of studies in sociology and economics on the mechanisms underlying peer effects is the difficulty of collecting data on microinteractions. They argue technology reduces data collection costs relative to direct observation and allows for realistic school activities with randomly assigned peers. The authors describe a novel strategy for collecting data on peer interactions and discuss how this approach might shed light on mechanisms underlying peer influence. The centerpiece of this strategy is the use of handheld computers by middle and high school students as part of interactive math and science lessons called the Discussion Game. The handhelds collect data on interactions between students and track how students' answers evolve as they interact with different peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)