Fear and affiliation in domesticated male rats.

Male rats actively seek the opportunity to interact with other male rats. Three experiments with 208 Long-Evans males examined the hypothesis that the presence of conspecifics can reduce the behavioral signs of fear and that this capacity provides part of the attraction to conspecifics. In Exp I, the immobility response was measured following exposure to a stressful noise. Ss that were observed in groups exhibited shorter durations of immobility than those observed alone. The "group" effect was sufficiently powerful to nullify different housing conditions and different degrees of familiarity among the Ss. Exp II compared social and nonsocial stimuli and found that only the former effectively reduced the immobility response. In Exp III, stressed Ss were more likely to choose to interact with a conspecific in a T-maze than were nonstressed Ss. Again, rearing conditions made little difference; both individually and group housed Ss were highly attracted to a conspecific. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

How do individuals remember their past statements?

It was hypothesized that, when it is difficult for people to remember what they said previously, they may use their sense of familiarity with a statement to determine whether it is one they expressed. In 3 experiments, Ss were asked to state whether they had witnessed certain objects in a previous slide presentation; they responded aloud with experimentally mandated statements. The familiarity of target statements was varied, independent of whether they were expressed, through extraneous presentations of the pertinent objects. Later, Ss tried to determine whether (Exps 1 and 2), or how frequently (Exp 3), they expressed the target statements. Results supported the hypothesis: Ss were more likely to remember making statements concerning the more familiar objects than the less familiar objects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Lexical access during eye fixations in reading: Effects of word-initial letter sequence.

Tested the constraint hypothesis, which states that lexical access in reading is initiated on the basis of word-initial letter information obtainable in the parafoveal region, in 2 experiments. Ss were 36 college students with normal vision. Eye movements were monitored while Ss read sentences containing target words whose initial trigram (Exp I) or bigram (Exp II) imposed either a high or a low degree of constraint in the lexicon. In contradiction to the hypothesis, high-constraint words (e.g., dwarf) received longer fixations than did low-constraint words (e.g., clown), despite the fact that high-constraint words have an initial letter sequence shared by few other words in the lexicon. A comparison of fixation times in viewing conditions with and without parafoveal letter information showed that the amount of decrease in target fixation time due to prior parafoveal availability was the same for high- and low-constraint targets. It is concluded that increased familiarity of word-initial letter sequence is beneficial to lexical access and that familiarity affects the efficiency of foveal but not parafoveal processing. A list of the sentences used in the 2 experiments is appended. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of distinctiveness, repetition and semantic priming on the recognition of face familiarity.

Examined the independence of effects of repetition from those of distinctiveness and semantic priming in the recognition of familiar faces. In Exp 1 (16 undergraduate Ss), repetition priming was shown to be additive with face distinctiveness in a face familiarity decision task, in which Ss made speeded familiarity decisions to a sequence of famous and unfamiliar faces. Exp 2 (16 undergraduate and postgraduate Ss) examined the combined effects of distinctiveness and semantic priming. The effect of distinctiveness was additive with that of semantic priming. Exp 3 (32 undergraduates and postgraduates) used a more powerful design in which effects of distinctiveness and semantic priming were assessed while all items were repeated 3 times during the course of the experiment. Effects of repetition and distinctiveness were again additive, as were effects of repetition and semantic priming. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of group consensus and social support on stimulus meaning: Mediation of conformity by cognitive restructuring.

Three experiments with a total of 163 undergraduates tested the hypothesis that a person reinterprets the meaning of the stimulus object when facing unpopular responses from a unanimous group and that this change in meaning leads to a shift in response toward the group's position. In Exp I, several opinion items were presented, and either Ss observed unpopular responses, supposedly made earlier by a unanimous group (UG) or by a group having 1 dissenter (social support), or they observed no response at all (control). Ss merely gave their interpretation of the meaning of a key word or phrase in each opinion statement—they did not give their own opinions. Results show that UG Ss gave more uncommon meanings to the stimuli than did Ss in the other 2 conditions. Exp II ruled out the possibility that the shift in meaning was due to Ss' adhering to the interpretation they assumed to be held by the majority. In Exp III, Ss were exposed to scores representing the meanings that were produced by the unanimous group and control conditions in Exp I. Results show that after observing the consensually produced meanings for these items, the Ss shifted their own opinions toward the position held by the UG in Exp I. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Tests of a translational model of Stroop interference: Translation or attention?

Examined the hypothesis that Stroop interference would increase in both the position and word tasks when the 2 task were mixed. In Exp 1, 34 Ss reported the position of a word by a manual response or read the word aloud. Results show that substantial interference occurs when Ss must be prepared to respond to either dimension, suggesting that translation is an obligatory process when attention is divided between the 2 dimensions. Exp 2 (40 Ss) showed that this interference is reduced if a cue that indicates the relevant dimension is presented 300 or 1,000 ms prior to the stimulus. Results are discussed in terms of a strength of processing model in which the degree of Stroop interference is attributed to the degree of attention to the irrelevant dimension of the Stroop stimulus. This model assumes that the degree of attention to a stimulus dimension is subject to both top-down and bottom-up influences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conceptual automaticity in recognition memory: Levels-of-processing effects on familiarity.

Examined the effect of level of processing (LP) on recognition memory using 2 response-signal delays (RSD; 500 and 1500 msec). In Exp 1, LP (semantic or nonsemantic) and RSD were manipulated between 24 college students. In Exp 2, orienting task (pleasantness rating or letter judgment) and RSD were manipulated among 32 Ss. In Exp 3, study orientation and test instructions (inclusion or exclusion) were within-S factors, and RSD was a between-S factor. 32 Ss were included in Exp 3. In Exp 1, a modality effect was found for fast responses. The LP was reliable at both points in time. In Exp 2, fast responses were associated with significantly more "false-alarms" to words encoded semantically than those encoded nonsemantically. In Exp 3, both recollection and familiarity estimates were elevated by prior conceptual processing. Estimates of recollection were affected by RSD. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cue familiarity but not target retrievability enhances feeling-of-knowing judgments.

Two hypotheses concerning people's ability to predict later memory performance for unrecalled items were investigated. The target retrievability hypothesis states that feeling-of-knowing judgments (FKJs) are based on partial target information, and the cue familiarity hypothesis asserts that they are based on recognition of the cues. In Exps 1 and 2, Ss either generated or read the targets of paired associates. Half of the cues had been primed in a pleasantness-rating task. The generation manipulation increased recall but had no effect on FKJs. Cue priming had no effect on recall but increased FKJs. In Exp 3, using general information questions primed after the initial recall attempt, both cue and target priming increased FKJs. Exp 4, which remedied difficulties in Exp 3, showed no effect of target priming, whereas cue priming increased FKJs. The results favor the cue familiarity hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Social identification effects in group polarization.

Tested a model of group polarization derived from social identity theory, proposing that if group members conform to group norms, attitude polarization could occur only if group members perceive those norms as more extreme than they "objectively" are. In Exp I, 60 undergraduates perceived attitude-relevant information attributed to speakers who were categorized as a group as representing a more extreme position of the issue than when the same information was attributed to noncategorized individuals. Attitude polarization occurred when Ss believed the information came from their in-group. As predicted, this polarization resulted from Ss' adoption of the "extremitized" in-group norm. In Exp II, categorization was manipulated by focusing 42 Ss on their group performance or on their individual performance. When Ss were focused on their group membership, group norms were perceived as more extreme, and attitude polarization due to conformity to these extremitized norms occurred. When Ss were focused on their individual performance, no extremitization occurred, and attitudes shifted to a more neutral position on the issue. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Type of information, familiarity, and the reduction of crowding stress.

Two studies (108 college students) focused on the effectiveness of various types of information in different contexts. Two informational foci (i.e., external and internal) were employed, and Ss were either familiar or unfamiliar with a potentially stressful setting. It was assumed that one's degree of familiarity with the context would render different types of concerns more salient and that these would more effectively be met by one type of information than by the other. Exp I found that situational information was more effective than emotional information for unfamiliar Ss, whose primary concerns in the setting were external. In contrast, emotional information was effective in reducing stress and facilitating performance for familiar Ss, whose concerns were primarily internal; but situational information was also effective for these individuals. Results of Exp II indicate that situational information, if accurate, not only can serve a reinforcing "consensual validation" function that addresses people's general concerns about the "reasonableness" of their responses, but can also reduce distress. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of source magnification of cognitive effort on attitudes: An information-processing view.

In Exp I 120 undergraduates viewed a videotape of 1 or 3 speakers presenting 1 or 3 arguments in favor of a counterattitudinal position. The 3-source/3-argument message produced significantly more persuasion than any of the other conditions, which did not differ from each other. It is suggested that each time a speaker appears, the recipient "gears up" to process the message and that if either speaker or argument is repeated, further thinking about the arguments is minimal. Exp II (30 Ss) excluded an alternative to this processing interpretation by showing that Ss exposed to the multiple-source/multiple-argument message did not infer that the pool of proproposal arguments was larger than that inferred by other Ss. In Exp III (100 Ss), Ss exposed to 3 compelling arguments purportedly produced by 3 different persons generated more positive thoughts and were more persuaded than Ss who read the same high quality arguments presumably generated by 1 person. However, Ss exposed to 3 weak arguments purportedly produced by 3 different persons generated more negative thoughts and were less persuaded than Ss who read the same low quality arguments attributed to 1 source. Overall, results indicate that increasing the number of sources of a message increases thinking about the message content. This increased thinking can result in either increased or decreased persuasion, depending on the cogency of the message arguments. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Time urgency among coronary-prone individuals.

Investigated differences in impatience among Type A and B individuals. In Exp I, 22 undergraduate females were required to signal the passage of 1 min while engaged in a reading task. Results indicate that Type A Ss perceived time as passing significantly more quickly than Type B Ss. In Exp II, the relative work rates (completion of inventories) were assessed for 112 undergraduate Type A and B Ss. Type As worked significantly more quickly than Bs. Both experiments lend support to the hypothesis that Type As are more impatient or time urgent than are Type Bs. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Investigating the orientation effect on the water-level task: Who? When? and Why?

Four experiments with adults on Piaget's (J. Piaget & B. Inhelder, 1956) water-level task investigated previous reports that containers tilted at larger angles produce more error than those tilted at smaller angles. Exp 1 found that this orientation effect occurred in both male and female Ss when the angles were manipulated between Ss but was absent in male Ss when manipulated within Ss. Exps 2 and 3 indicated that male, and to a lesser degree female Ss, appear to benefit from exposure to easier (less-tilted) stimulus trials and, as a result, perform more accurately on subsequent difficult trials. Exp 4 implicated mental rotation processes in the orientation effect by demonstrating that accuracy varied as a function of how far Ss needed to mentally rotate the container from its initial position to its test position. A developmental sequence is proposed in which relevant spatial abilities are assumed to facilitate acquisition of the principle that liquids are invariantly horizontal, which in turn leads to more accurate performance on the task. Differences in cognitive strategies may be responsible for the Gender X Orientation interaction observed under some conditions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self–nonself-segregation and reality monitoring.

Three experiments with 144 female undergraduates tested the hypothesis that field-independent (FI) Ss would be better reality monitors and would be better able to separate the self from the nonself than field-dependent (FD) Ss. It is noted that, according to M. K. Johnson and C. L. Raye (see record 1981-06694-001), reality monitoring is the process of determining whether a memory originated in thought processes (internal) or in perception (external). Ss' field dependence–independence was determined with the Group Embedded Figures Test. In Exp I, FD and FI Ss were asked to discriminate between internal and external sources of memories. FI Ss were more accurate at identifying the origin of their memories and made fewer reality monitoring confusions than FD Ss. When Ss were asked to discriminate between 2 external sources of memories in Exp II or between 2 internal sources of memories in Exp III, FI Ss did not show the source discrimination advantage. Recognition memory also varied across experiments, with FI Ss showing an advantage in some (Exps I and II) but not all (Exp III) cases. Findings are discussed in terms of an overreliance by FD Ss on the sensory, semantic, and contextual detail characteristic of externally derived memories and little awareness by these Ss of their own cognitive operations. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of sex guilt on interpersonal pleasuring.

Two experiments (120 undergraduate males) investigated whether conceptualization of sex guilt could be extended to an interpersonal physical pleasuring paradigm. In Exp I, low-guilt (as determined by the Mosher Forced-Choice Guilt Inventory) Ss administered more overall pleasure to a female confederate than did high-guilt Ss. In Exp II, in addition to a main effect for guilt, high-guilt Ss administered significantly lower levels of pleasure when they anticipated further interaction with the confederate than when they did not. Low-guilt Ss administered slightly more pleasure when they anticipated further interaction with the confederate. Results are not consistent with D. L. Mosher's (see PA, Vols 39:9269 and 40:4236) hypothesis that low-guilt Ss are more sensitive to situational cues than high-guilt Ss. It is suggested that the inconsistency was a function of the reinforcement value of interpersonal pleasuring. Although previous research required Ss to make responses that had little apparent reinforcement value, the nature of the pleasuring response did appear to have reinforcement value for both low- and high-guilt Ss, since they increased their levels of pleasuring over trials. A 3rd experiment (24 Ss) that failed to find a relationship between hostility-guilt and pleasuring provided strong support for the relation between sex guilt and interpersonal pleasuring. (17 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assimilation and contrast as a function of people's willingness and ability to expend effort in forming an impression.

Set/reset (L. L. Martin; see record 1987-01092-001) hypothesis that contrast demands more cognitive effort than does assimilation was examined. In Exp. 1, the impressions of distracted Ss showed assimilation toward blatantly primed concepts, whereas the impressions of nondistracted Ss showed contrast. In Exp. 2, Ss told that their ratings would be lumped into a group average showed assimilation, whereas Ss told that their ratings would be examined individually showed contrast. In Exp. 3, the impressions of Ss low in need for cognition showed assimilation, whereas the impressions of Ss high in need for cognition showed contrast. Exp. 1 also showed that the results were not due to differences in recall of the target information, and Exp. 3 showed that the results were not due to differences in recall of the priming stimuli. Together, the results suggest that the processes involved in contrast demand more cognitive effort than do the processes involved in assimilation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effects of novelty and familiarity on illness-induced aversions to food and place cues in coyotes (Canis latrans).

Two experiments investigated the effects of novelty and familiarity on illness-induced aversions to taste and place cues in 10 coyotes. Ss were made ill on familiar food laced with Li?CO? in a novel place and then received preference tests. In Exp I, Ss avoided the previously poisoned familiar food in the novel treatment place but readily ate the same familiar food in a familiar safe place. Exp II replicated the results of Exp I, and it was found that Ss would eat a different familiar food in the novel treatment place. A model for averting animals from places where they are not wanted is presented. (32 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impulsivity and perception: Individual differences in the processing of the local and global dimensions of stimuli.

In Exp I, 48 undergraduates differing in impulsivity (as measured by a self-report inventory) performed 2 versions of filtering, interference, and invariant control tasks. In one version, Ss sorted according to the value of the local dimension; in the other, the global dimension was the relevant one. In addition, Ss performed a task in which the 2 dimensions were perfectly correlated. Results show that Ss sorted more quickly when the global dimension was relevant than when the local dimension was relevant. In Exp II, 43 of the Ss from Exp I were used to determine whether failure to find a relationship between impulsivity and filtering performance was due to correlations of local and global dimensions; results were negative. In Exp III, the same 43 Ss used in Exp II were used to test the information-integration hypothesis. Results support the hypothesis—high impulsives were more impaired than other Ss when the task required that they integrate information from the global dimension with information from the local dimension. Findings can be explained in terms of individual differences in the value placed on speed, relative to accuracy, in information processing. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cognitive resources and dual-task interference effects at retrieval in normal people: The role of the frontal lobes and medial temporal cortex.

Conducted 3 experiments to examine the hypothesis that concurrent secondary tasks at retrieval will interfere more with long-term, episodic memory functions involving the frontal lobes than those involving the medial temporal lobes hippocampus (MTL/H). The rationale is that strategic retrieval processes mediated by the frontal lobes place greater demands on cognitive resources than do relatively automatic associative retrieval processes (ecphory) mediated by the temporal lobes. In Exps 1 and 2, sequential finger tapping was performed at encoding, at retrieval, at both, or at neither. Recall of a categorized list of 16 words from the California Verbal Learning Test in Exp 1, and release from proactive inhibition (PI) in Exp 2, both being tests that involve the frontal lobes, were impaired if normal Ss tapped at both encoding and retrieval. Concurrent tapping had little effect on rate of learning in Exp 1 and on total words recalled during the buildup of PI in Exp 2, both of which are indices that are affected more by MTL/H than by frontal lesions. In Exp 3, tapping by normal Ss affected letter fluency, a test more sensitive to frontal lobe than temporal lobe damage, but not category fluency, for which the reverse is true. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Topic structure representation and text recall.

Tested the hypothesis that readers represent a text's topics and their interrelations as they read and then use those representations to access information about each topic. In 2 experiments, 222 undergraduates were required to read and free recall an expository text of approximately 1,100 words in length. Exp I manipulated both the order of topics in the stimulus text and whether the introductory paragraph stated the topics and their organization. It was found that Ss recalled information about fewer topics if the topics were randomly ordered and the introductory paragraph was uninformative than if topics were logically ordered or if the introductory paragraph was informative. Differences in recall of topics accounted for much of the variance in overall recall and recall errors. Exp II examined the effects of the presence or absence of topic sentences and of variations in the physical marking of paragraph boundaries. Findings show that Ss recalled information about more topics if the text contained topic sentences than if it did not. Results are consistent with the hypothesis that readers use a representation of a text's topic structure to guide recall. (40 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)