"If I had it to do over again...": Midlife review, midcourse corrections, and women's well-being in midlife.

Regrets about early adult life choices, expressed in midlife, are examined as a source of motivation for life changes in later midlife in 2 samples of women. Replicated findings with longitudinal data indicate that regret motivates goal setting but is not associated with actually making desired life changes. In both samples, women who had regrets about early adult life choices but did not make relevant life changes were lower in later well-being than both women with regrets who did make such changes and women without regrets. Compared with women who transformed regrets into life changes, women who did not were lower in effective instrumentality and higher in rumination, though they did not appear to face more barriers to change. Analyses with longitudinal data indicated that both rumination and effective instrumentality mediated the relationship between regret and well-being for women who did not translate regret into life changes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Military times and turning points in men's lives.

Used data from the Berkeley Guidance Study (N?=?214) to test the hypothesis that military service functioned as a turning point for American veterans born in 1928–1929 and serving in the armed forces from the late 1940's into the Korean War. Findings indicate that, as "children of the Great Depression," these Ss faced life choices with a personal history of disadvantage that increased the appeal of military service; a deprived family during the 1930's, poor grades, and self-inadequacy. Ss with such histories were most likely to enter the service at the earliest possible moment and to change the course of their lives. Early entry, in particular, entailed a later transition to adulthood in terms of completing their educations, getting married, and having their 1st child later than nonveterans. Despite a more erratic work life than others, the young veterans managed to use their work to enable them to equal the occupational achievements of nonveterans. Veterans generally had more stable marriages up to middle age than did nonveterans. Early entrants showed a larger gain in psychological strength and health from adolescence to midlife than did nonveterans. Overall, military service turned some Ss toward a brighter future, even though for others it produced a tragic side in terms of damaged health or death. (27 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Siblings of adults with mild intellectual deficits or mental illness: Differential life course outcomes.

The present study contrasted the later life sibling relationships, patterns of family formation, and psychological distress and well-being of siblings of adults with disabilities to a nondisabled normative group. The authors identified 268 siblings of adults with mild intellectual deficits (ID) and 83 siblings of adults with mental illness (MI) from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (R. M. Hauser & W. H. Sewell, 1985; R. M. Hauser, J. Sheridan, & J. R. Warren, 1998), a prospective longitudinal study that followed participants from age 18 years to age 64 years. Compared with the norm (n = 791), siblings of adults with mild ID had more contact with family members and were more likely to live in the same state as the sibling with the disability but reported less affective closeness. Siblings of adults with MI reported more psychological distress, less psychological well-being, and less adaptive personality characteristics compared with the norm, particularly for siblings of men with MI. There were no differences between groups in the patterns of marriage and childbearing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cohort differences in cognitive aging and terminal decline in the Seattle Longitudinal Study.

Life span researchers have long been interested in how and why fundamental aspects of human ontogeny differ between cohorts of people who have lived through different historical epochs. When examined at the same age, later born cohorts are often cognitively and physically fitter than earlier born cohorts. Less is known, however, about cohort differences in the rate of cognitive aging and if, at the very end of life, pervasive mortality-related processes overshadow and minimize cohort differences. We used data on 5 primary mental abilities from the Seattle Longitudinal Study (Schaie, 2005) to compare both age-related and mortality-related changes between earlier born cohorts (1886–1913) and later born cohorts (1914–1948). Our models covary for several individual and cohort differences in central indicators of life expectancy, education, health, and gender. Age-related growth models corroborate and extend earlier findings by documenting level differences at age 70 of up to 0.50 SD and less steep rates of cognitive aging on all abilities between 50 and 80 years of age favoring the later born cohort. In contrast, mortality-related models provide limited support for positive cohort differences. The later born cohort showed steeper mortality-related declines. We discuss possible reasons why often reported positive secular trends in age-related processes may not generalize to the vulnerable segment of the population that is close to death and suggest routes for further inquiry. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Trajectories of life satisfaction in the first 5 years following traumatic brain injury.

Objectives: The trajectories of life satisfaction for 609 individuals who sustained a traumatic brain injury (TBI) were studied. Hierarchical linear modeling analysis examined individual level growth trends over the first 5 years following TBI using gender, functional independence, age, and time to estimate life satisfaction trajectories. Measures: Participants completed the Functional Independence Measure and the Life Satisfaction Inventory at years 1, 2, 4, and 5 after sustaining TBI. Results: Participants who reported higher functional independence at year 1 also had higher life satisfaction at year 1. Participants with lower functional independence across the 5-year period had life satisfaction trajectories that decreased at significantly greater rates than the individuals with more functional independence. The life satisfaction trajectory declined for the sample, but participants reporting lower cognitive and motor functional independence had significantly greater declines in life satisfaction trajectories. Age and gender were not significant factors in predicting life satisfaction trajectories following TBI. Implications: Individuals with greater cognitive and motor impairments following TBI are likely to experience significant declines in life satisfaction within 5 years of living with TBI. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Looking back, what period of your life brought you the most satisfaction"

Common myths hold that old persons are fixated on childhood memories, that they believe that youth is the best part of life, and that old age contains few satisfactions. Berkeley Older Generation Study members, when asked on two occasions during old age (M ages = 69.8 and 82.7) to name the periods of their lives that brought them the most and the least satisfaction, dispelled these myths. The thirties and forties were popular choices for periods of great satisfaction, but childhood and adolescence were quite unpopular for these old persons. "Right now" was named more often than any other life period as most satisfactory. Men and women did not differ in life periods nominated, but they did differ in the reasons given for their choices. Each period provided its own pattern of satisfactions and disappointments, and strong individual differences were apparent.     

The intersection of life stage and social events: Personality and life outcomes.

Two studies examined the intersection of life stage with the experience of social events. Study 1 tested whether social events coinciding with early adulthood are more meaningful to individuals than events during other life stages (K. Mannheim, 1972; A. J. Stewart & J. M. Healy, 1989). In 4 of 5 samples of college-educated women (3 age cohorts), the hypothesis was supported. Study 2 examined the impact of the women's movement on the personalities and careers of women who experienced the movement during early adulthood versus early middle adulthood. Women in both cohorts who found the movement meaningful attained higher education, work status, and income levels; were employed in upwardly mobile careers; and were more assertive and self-confident at midlife than women who found the movement less important. Consistent with hypotheses, finding the women's movement meaningful was associated with personality change in the older cohort. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Midlife Baby Boom women compared with their older counterparts in midlife

A stratified random sample of midlife Baby Boom women, ages 35-42, was compared with a group of older midlife women, ages 43-55. The sample consisted of 992 women who had graduated between the years of 1955 and 1975 from a large university in southern California. Measures of anxiety and life satisfaction were administered to each year group. This served to control for the effect of age and was helpful in explaining whether the differences between the groups were age related or the result of socialization. The Baby Boom cohort of women, born after January 1, 1946, have only recently entered the ranks of midlife. They have been recognized as unique and less traditional than their older counterparts with regard to sexual freedom, career choices, and educational opportunities. Similarities and differences were found between the two groups of women. However, the results clearly revealed that the effects of socialization, rather than age, yielded the major significant variables influencing a feeling of well-being in both cohorts of midlife women.     

Place matters: Consensual features and regional variation in American well-being and self.

Consensual and regionally distinct features of well-being and self were examined in a nationally representative survey of midlife Americans (ages 25-75). Consistent with key American ideology, Study 1 found that a majority of Americans believe they have high levels of mastery, purpose, life satisfaction, overall health, family and work obligation, and partner and family support. Study 2 found distinct regional well-being profiles (e.g., New England reflected concern with not being constrained by others; Mountain showed concern with environmental mastery; West South Central with personal growth and feeling cheerful and happy; West North Central with feeling calm, peaceful, and satisfied, and East South Central with contributing to others' well-being). Study 3 found regional self profiles consistent with the well-being profiles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The chronic illness quality of life (CIQOL) model: Explaining life satisfaction in people living with HIV disease.

The chronic illness quality of life (CIQOL) model theorizes that life satisfaction in persons living with a chronic illness such as HIV disease is a function of illness-related discrimination, barriers to health care and social services, physical well-being, social support, and coping. The CIQOL model was evaluated using data from 275 persons living with HIV disease. Women reported less life satisfaction and confronted more barriers to health care and social services than men, and White participants reported higher perceptions of AIDS-related discrimination than non-White participants. The CIQOL model provided an excellent fit to study data (root-mean-square error of approximation = .03) and accounted for almost a third of the variance in life satisfaction scores. Barriers to health care and social services played a particularly prominent role in the model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Compound caregiving: When lifelong caregivers undertake additional caregiving roles.

Objective: Lifetime parental caregivers of adults with intellectual disabilities (ID) may also become caregivers to other family members. This study investigated caregiver experiences of compound caregiving (i.e. additional caregiving roles) and its association with caregiver quality of life. Participants: Ninety-one older caregivers living with their adult son/daughter with ID were interviewed. Mean age of the caregivers was 60 years and their sons'/daughters' mean age was 29 years. Main Outcome Measures: Compound caregiving status, physical and mental health, life satisfaction, depressive symptomatology, and desire for alternative residential placement for their co-residing son/daughter. Results: Thirty-four (37%) reported being current compound caregivers to an additional care recipient, predominantly a mother, father, or spouse. Caregivers averaged 39 hours per week fulfilling their primary caregiving tasks, an additional 12 hours per week on the compound caregiving role, and the median duration of compound caregiving was 3 years. Compared with the non-compound caregivers, the compound caregivers had increased desire to place their son/daughter into residential care, though no group differences were apparent in life satisfaction, depressive symptomatology, physical health, or mental health. The most problematic issues reported by compound caregivers were having little personal time and a lack of adequate help from others. Conclusion: Compound caregiving was often experienced, and may galvanize these lifetime caregivers to start making future plans for their sons/daughters. Future research is warranted to refine more homogeneous groupings of compound caregivers, who may be at greater risk for adverse outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adolescent life experiences as predictors of occupational attainment.

Adolescent life experiences, measured with Owens's Biographical Questionnaire (BQ), were used to predict occupational attainment 16 yrs to 21 yrs later in a sample of 1,523 college graduates. Study participants completed the BQ in either 1968 or 1970–1973 as college freshmen and subsequently reported their occupational status in 1989. Jobs were rationally clustered into 18 different categories. Separate gender analyses were conducted in which 13 BQ factors were used as predictors of occupational attainment. Effect sizes were substantially larger than those obtained in an earlier study by A. G. Neiner and W. A. Owens (see record 1985-16013-001). The usefulness of life experience data for understanding occupational choices as well as implications for college counseling are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The costs and benefits of writing, talking, and thinking about life's triumphs and defeats.

Three studies considered the consequences of writing, talking, and thinking about significant events. In Studies 1 and 2, students wrote, talked into a tape recorder, or thought privately about their worst (N = 96) or happiest experience (N = 111) for 15 min each during 3 consecutive days. In Study 3 (N = 112), students wrote or thought about their happiest day; half systematically analyzed, and half repetitively replayed this day. Well-being and health measures were administered before each study's manipulation and 4 weeks after. As predicted, in Study 1, participants who processed a negative experience through writing or talking reported improved life satisfaction and enhanced mental and physical health relative to those who thought about it. The reverse effect for life satisfaction was observed in Study 2, which focused on positive experiences. Study 3 examined possible mechanisms underlying these effects. Students who wrote about their happiest moments--especially when analyzing them--experienced reduced well-being and physical health relative to those who replayed these moments. Results are discussed in light of current understanding of the effects of processing life events. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Midlife women's generativity and authoritarianism: Marriage, motherhood, and 10 years of aging.

Generativity and authoritarianism assessed at age 52 were correlated with criterion variables assessed at age 62 in a sample of well-educated women (N = 81). Results indicated that generativity predicted positive personality characteristics, satisfaction with marriage and motherhood, and successful aging. By contrast, although authoritarianism is linked in the literature to endorsing traditional gender roles, authoritarianism was uncorrelated in the current study with happiness about marriage and was negatively related to perceptions of motherhood. Furthermore, authoritarianism was correlated with neuroticism later in life. These data suggest that midlife authoritarianism may be problematic as women transition from their 50s to their 60s. Midlife generativity, in contrast, seems to offer one path to life satisfaction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Work preferences, life values, and personal views of top math/science graduate students and the profoundly gifted: Developmental changes and gender differences during emerging adulthood and parenthood.

Work preferences, life values, and personal views of top math/science graduate students (275 men, 255 women) were assessed at ages 25 and 35 years. In Study 1, analyses of work preferences revealed developmental changes and gender differences in priorities: Some gender differences increased over time and increased more among parents than among childless participants, seemingly because the mothers’ priorities changed. In Study 2, gender differences in the graduate students’ life values and personal views at age 35 were compared with those of profoundly gifted participants (top 1 in 10,000, identified by age 13 and tracked for 20 years: 265 men, 84 women). Again, gender differences were larger among parents. Across both cohorts, men appeared to assume a more agentic, career-focused perspective than women did, placing more importance on creating high-impact products, receiving compensation, taking risks, and gaining recognition as the best in their fields. Women appeared to favor a more communal, holistic perspective, emphasizing community, family, friendships, and less time devoted to career. Gender differences in life priorities, which intensify during parenthood, anticipated differential male-female representation in high-level and time-intensive careers, even among talented men and women with similar profiles of abilities, vocational interests, and educational experiences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural borders and mental barriers: The relationship between living abroad and creativity.

Despite abundant anecdotal evidence that creativity is associated with living in foreign countries, there is currently little empirical evidence for this relationship. Five studies employing a multimethod approach systematically explored the link between living abroad and creativity. Using both individual and dyadic creativity tasks, Studies 1 and 2 provided initial demonstrations that time spent living abroad (but not time spent traveling abroad) showed a positive relationship with creativity. Study 3 demonstrated that priming foreign living experiences temporarily enhanced creative tendencies for participants who had previously lived abroad. In Study 4, the degree to which individuals had adapted to different cultures while living abroad mediated the link between foreign living experience and creativity. Study 5 found that priming the experience of adapting to a foreign culture temporarily enhanced creativity for participants who had previously lived abroad. The relationship between living abroad and creativity was consistent across a number of creativity measures (including those measuring insight, association, and generation), as well as with masters of business administration and undergraduate samples, both in the United States and Europe, demonstrating the robustness of this phenomenon. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal analysis of midlife generativity, intergenerational roles, and caregiving.

Items from California Adult Q-Sort (CAQ) were used to assess psychosocial generativity (E. H. Erikson, 1950) in a sample of educated women at midlife. CAQ scores measured at age 43 demonstrated convergent validity with an inventory measure of generativity assessed at age 53. According to other longitudinal analyses, women who attained a generative stance at age 43 reported greater investment 10 years later in intergenerational roles (e.g. daughter, mother) but not nonintergenerational ones (e.g. friend, sister). Generative women also reported less subjective burden in caring for aging parents and more knowledge about community elder care programs. Further evidence suggests that participants felt embedded in a reciprocal caregiving network in which they themselves are recipients of care. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The fulfillment of career dreams at midlife: does it matter for women's mental health?

This paper examines whether a woman's mental health at midlife is affected by the degree to which her earlier career aspirations have been fulfilled. Two dimensions of mental health are considered: depression and purpose in life. Based on data for 3,499 female respondents to the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study (WLS), the results indicate that women who have fallen short of their earlier career goals suffer from lower levels of purpose in life and higher levels of depression, even after controlling for social background, human capital, family, and health characteristics. For purpose in life, the harmful effects of falling short of one's goal attenuate considerably when current family characteristics are controlled. For depression, the harmful effects of falling short of one's goal decline considerably once health characteristics are considered. Although women who aspired to be housewives evidenced lower levels of purpose in life at midlife than women with work aspirations, this difference was not statistically significant once human capital characteristics were controlled. Women who, at age 35, "did not know" what they hoped to do in the future had significantly lower levels of purpose in life in their 50s, even after controlling for social background, human capital, family, and health characteristics.     

Relationships of job and family involvement, family social support, and work–family conflict with job and life satisfaction.

A model of the relationship between work and family that incorporates variables from both the work-family conflict and social support literatures was developed and empirically tested. This model related bidirectional work-family conflict, family instrumental and emotional social support, and job and family involvement to job and life satisfaction. Data came from 163 workers who were living with at least 1 family member. Results suggested that relationships between work and family can have an important effect on job and life satisfaction and that the level of involvement the worker assigns to work and family roles is associated with this relationship. The results also suggested that the relationship between work and family can be simultaneously characterized by conflict and support. Higher levels of work interfering with family predicted lower levels of family emotional and instrumental support. Higher levels of family emotional and instrumental support were associated with lower levels of family interfering with work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Risk indicators for hospitalization during the last year of life

OBJECTIVE: High levels of hospital expenditures for older people during their last year of life are widely documented. However, evidence of the association between prospectively measured indicators and subsequent hospitalization is sparse. This article investigates the pattern of hospitalization for a sample of Medicare enrollees during their last year of life. DATA SOURCES: Data from the Longitudinal Study of Aging, a national study of persons age 70 and older, are used. Only data on decedents are used. STUDY DESIGN: We determine individual characteristics (including functional status, evidence of disease, living arrangement, and prior hospitalization) shortly before the last year of life. A distinction is made between terminal and nonterminal admissions. National estimates and regression analyses using survey weights are conducted. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: The likelihood of any use is high regardless of age, functional status, or the presence of major diseases. Although only a few indicators are associated with having a terminal stay, a number of indicators are associated with nonterminal use. Nonterminal stays and total nights hospitalized are positively associated with prior evidence of disease, prior hospitalization, and age, although the probability of nonterminal use decreases with age for persons over 82 years old. The relationship between use and functional status depends on whether persons lived alone, were institutionalized, or had private health insurance. CONCLUSIONS: This study demonstrates that while it is difficult to predict who will be admitted to the hospital at the time of death, a number of characteristics existing before the last year of life are associated with nonterminal hospitalization and total nights hospitalized during the last year of life.