Warm Spray Forming of Ti-6Al-4V

Warm spray (WS) is a modification of high-velocity oxy-fuel spraying, in which the temperature of the supersonic gas flow generated by the combustion of kerosene and oxygen is controlled by diluting the combustion flame with an inert gas such as nitrogen. The inert gas is injected into the mixing chamber placed between the combustion chamber and the powder feed ports, thus the temperature of the propellant gas can be controlled from ~700 to 2,000 K. Since WS allows for higher particle temperatures in comparison to cold spray, warm sprayed particles are more softened upon impact, thus resulting in greater deformation facilitating the formation of shear instability for bonding. Recently, the combustion pressure of WS has been increased from 1 (low-pressure warm spray) to 4 MPa (high-pressure warm spray) in order to increase the velocity of sprayed particles. Effects of spray parameters on microstructure, mechanical properties, and splats formation of Ti-6Al-4V were systematically studied. Obtained coatings were examined by analyzing the coating cross-section images, microhardness as well as oxygen content. In addition, flattening ratio of splats was calculated as a function of nitrogen flow rate. It was found that the increased particle velocity caused by the increased combustion pressure had significant beneficial effects in terms of improving density and controlling the oxygen level in the sprayed Ti-6Al-4V coatings.     

Comparison of Oxidation and Microstructure of Warm-Sprayed and Cold-Sprayed Titanium Coatings

Thick titanium coatings were prepared by the warm spraying (WS) and cold spraying (CS) processes to investigate the oxidation and microstructure of the coating layers. Prior to the coating formations, the temperature and velocity of in-flight titanium powder particles were numerically calculated. Significant oxidation occurred in the WS process using higher gas temperature conditions with low nitrogen flow rate, which is mixed to the flame jet of a high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) spray gun in order to control the temperature of the propellant gas. Oxidation, however, decreased strikingly as the nitrogen flow rate increased. In the CS process using nitrogen or helium as a propellant gas, little oxidation was observed. Even when scanning electron microscopy or an x-ray diffraction method did not detect oxides in the coating layers produced by WS using a high nitrogen flow rate or by CS using helium, the inert gas fusion method revealed minor increases of oxygen content from 0.01 to 0.2?wt.%. Most of the cross-sections of the coating layers prepared by conventional mechanical polishing looked dense. However, the cross-sections prepared by an ion-milling method revealed the actual microstructures containing small pores and unbounded interfaces between deposited particles.     

Computational fluid dynamic modeling of gas flow characteristics in a high-velocity oxy-fuel thermal spray system

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed to predict gas dynamic behavior in a high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) thermal spray gun in which premixed oxygen and propylene are burnt in a 12 mm combustion chamber linked to a parallel-sided nozzle. The CFD analysis is applied to investigate axisymmetric, steady-state, turbulent, compressible, and chemically combusting flow both within the gun and in a free jet region between the gun and the substrate to be coated. The combustion of oxygen and propylene is modeled using a single-step, finite-rate chemistry model that also allows for dissociation of the reaction products. Results are presented to show the effect of (1) fuel-to-oxygen gas ratio and (2) total gas flow rate on the gas dynamic behavior. Along the centerline, the maximum temperature reached is insensitive to the gas ratio but depends on the total flow. However, the value attained (∼2500 K) is significantly lower than the maximum temperature (∼3200 K) of the annular flame in the combustion chamber. By contrast, the centerline gas velocity depends on both total flow and gas ratio, the highest axial gas velocity being attained with the higher flow and most fuel-rich mixture. The gas Mach number increases through the gun and reaches a maximum value of approximately 1.6 around 5 mm downstream from the nozzle exit. The numerical calculations also show that the residual oxygen level is principally dependent on the fuel-to-oxygen ratio and decreases by approximately fivefold as the ratio is varied from 90 to 69% of the stoichiometric requirement. The CFD model is also used to investigate the effect of changes in combustion chamber size and geometry on gas dynamics, and the results are compared with the nominal 12 mm chamber baseline calculations.     

Numerical modeling of in-flight characteristics of inconel 625 particles during high-velocity oxy-fuel thermal spraying

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed to predict particle dynamic behavior in a high-velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) thermal spray gun in which premixed oxygen and propylene are burnt in a combustion chamber linked to a long, parallel-sided nozzle. The particle transport equations are solved in a Lagrangian manner and coupled with the two-dimensional, axisymmetric, steady state, chemically reacting, turbulent gas flow. Within the particle transport model, the total flow of the particle phase is modeled by tracking a small number of particles through the continuum gas flow, and each of these individual particles is tracked independently through the continuous phase. Three different combustion chamber designs were modeled, and the in-flight particle characteristics of Inconel were 625 studied. Results are presented to show the effect of process parameters, such as particle injection speed and location, total gas flow rate, fuel-to-oxygen gas ratio, and particle size on the particle dynamic behavior for a parallel-sided, 12 mm long combustion chamber. The results indicate that the momentum and heat transfer to particles are primarily influenced by total gas flow. The 12 mm long chamber can achieve an optimum performance for Inconel 625 powder particles ranging in diameter from 20 to 40 μm. At a particular spraying distance, an optimal size of particles is observed with respect to particle temperature. The effect of different combustion chamber dimensions on particle dynamics was also investigated. The results obtained for both a 22 mm long chamber and also one with a conical, converging design are compared with the baseline data for the 12 mm chamber.     

Effect of Operating Parameters on a Dual-Stage High Velocity Oxygen Fuel Thermal Spray System

High velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray systems are being used to apply coatings to prevent surface degradation. The coatings of temperature sensitive materials such as titanium and copper, which have very low melting points, cannot be applied using a single-stage HVOF system. Therefore, a dual-stage HVOF system has been introduced and modeled computationally. The dual-spray system provides an easy control of particle oxidation by introducing a mixing chamber. In addition to the materials being sprayed, the thermal spray coating quality depends to a large extent on flow behavior of reacting gases and the particle dynamics. The present study investigates the influence of various operating parameters on the performance of a dual-stage thermal spray gun. The objective is to develop a predictive understanding of various parameters. The gas flow field and the free jet are modeled by considering the conservation of mass, momentum, and energy with the turbulence and the equilibrium combustion sub models. The particle phase is decoupled from the gas phase due to very low particle volume fractions. The results demonstrate the advantage of a dual-stage system over a single-stage system especially for the deposition of temperature sensitive materials.     

Modeling of Two-Phase Flow and Heat Transfer in Low-Temperature Oxygen-Fuel Spray Process

The low-temperature oxygen-fuel (LTOF) spray is a modification of high velocity oxygen fuel spray. In this process, the high-temperature gas is accelerated to supersonic speed through a Laval nozzle followed by a straight barrel. By injecting room temperature gas into the mixing chamber, the temperature of the gas can be controlled in a range of about 1000-2500 K, so that some oxygen and temperature-sensitive materials, such as titanium and copper, can avoid oxidation or decomposition during the spraying process. The purpose of this paper is to establish a 2-D mathematical model to simulate the supersonic gas dynamics and particles behavior in LTOF process. The temperature and velocity of the flow fields, and the trajectory and heating of in-flight particles are predicted for different operating parameters. The model is validated by experimental data in the literature. Effects of the mixing gas flow rates, particle sizes, and injection conditions on this process were investigated as well.     

Mathematical modeling of the gas and powder flow in HVOF systems

A mathematical model was developed to describe the gas dynamics and heat-transfer mechanism in the gas/particle flow of high- velocity oxyfuel (HVOF) systems. A numerical solution was carried out using a PC- based computer program. One- dimensional predictions of the temperature and velocity profiles of gas and particles along the axis of flow were obtained to conduct cost- effective parametric studies and quality optimization of thermal spray coatings produced by HVOF systems. The numerical computer model allows for the variation of the HVOF system parameters, such as air/fuel ratio and flow rates, cooling water inlet temperature and flow rate, barrel length, standoff distance, particle size, and gun geometry. Because of the negligible volume of the powder relative to the gas, the gaseous phase was modeled as continuous nonadiabatic, and friction flow with variable specific heats and changing cross- sectional areas of flow. The generalized continuity, momentum, and energy equations with the influence parameters were used to model the gaseous flow regime and predict its thermodynamic properties. Empirical formulas for the mean axial decay of both velocity and temperature in the supersonic jet plume region were generated from published measurements of these parameters using laser Doppler velocimeter and Ray leigh scattering techniques, respectively. The particle drag and heat- transfer coefficients were calculated by empirical formulas in terms of Reynolds, Nusselt, and Prandtl numbers to evaluate both the momentum and heat transferred between the combustion gases and the powder particles. The model predictions showed good agreement with the particle and gas temperature and velocity measurements that are available in the literature.     

Numerical Investigation of Combustion and Flow Dynamics in a High Velocity Oxygen-Fuel Thermal Spray Gun

The combustion and flow behavior within a high velocity oxygen-fuel (HVOF) thermal spray gun is very complex and involves multiphase flow, heat transfer, chemical reactions, and supersonic/subsonic transitions. Additionally, this behavior has a significant effect on the formation of a coating. Non-premixed combustion models have been developed and are able to provide insight into the underlying physics of the process. Therefore, this investigation employs a non-premixed combustion model and the SST \(k - \omega\) turbulence model to simulate the flow field of the JP5000 (Praxair-TAFA, US) HVOF thermal spray gun. The predicted temperature and velocity have a high level of agreement with experimental data when using the non-premixed combustion model. The results are focused on the fuel combustion, the subsequent gas dynamics within the HVOF gun, and the development of a supersonic free jet outside the gun. Furthermore, the oxygen/fuel inlet turbulence intensity, the fuel droplet size, and the oxygen/fuel ratio are investigated to determine their effect on the supersonic flow characteristics of the combustion gas.     

Design and optimisation of a multi-powder feed system for the HVOF deposition process

Currently no specific method exists for the deposition of High Velocity Oxy-Fuel (HVOF) thermal spray functionally graded coatings. This paper investigates the design and optimisation of a multi-powder HVOF thermal spray device in order to deposit aluminium/tool-steel functionally graded coatings. A multi-powder feed device concept was developed. The concept was based on a stand alone two powder chamber device which integrates with common hopper systems to allow the mixing of two powders during thermal spray deposition. This concept was verified by simulation the design of this device for multi-powder flow using Finite Element Analysis (FEA) to arrive at the optimum dual feed design. The FEA model predicted the mixing and flow of two powders of various ratios' of mass flow rate and velocity based on an optimum designed shape and pressure ratios' of nitrogen gas in the chamber to pick-up shaft of 2.25:1. This yielded the best results in terms of carrying the powders from the mixing zone into the nitrogen gas flow path, inside the pick-up shaft and on towards the HVOF gun. Post finite element analysis the device was manufactured for the utilisation within the HVOF process. Optimisation tests of the device included; powder flow bench tests and HVOF thermal spraying of graded deposits. The results revealed a calibration graph for the two powders in question and the compositional variation across the deposit during functionally graded deposition. The composition of the graded deposits were close to that anticipated hence this showed the suitability of the newly designed multi-powder deposition system in mixing two powders for the purpose of producing HVOF graded coatings.     

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 通过建立圆管状燃烧室内甲烷气体燃烧的数学模型,对燃烧室回流区的温度场、速度场、流场以及甲烷、氧气、二氧化碳以及氮氧化合物的质量分数进行了数值模拟。通过改变入口高温空气的预热温度,数值模拟了以上变量的分布规律。研究结果表明,提高空气的预热温度,燃烧室内的反应进行越彻底,温度分布更均匀。研究结果对燃烧室的设计和燃烧室工况分析具有指导意义,所建立的数学模型为燃烧室几何和结构设计和燃烧过程操作中进行定量分析的有效手段。     

液体燃料-空气/氧气混合助燃超音速火焰喷涂枪的研制

采用枪内混气方式,设计研制了一种采用炽热体作为稳焰器的液体燃料-空气/氧气混合助燃超音速火焰喷涂枪.用SprayWatch热喷涂监测系统测试喷涂枪焰流出口速度和温度,并研究喷涂工艺对WC-12Co涂层组织和性能的影响.结果表明,喷涂枪焰流出口速度超过1300m/s,焰流温度可在2302～3410K之间进行精确调节,精度达到±50K;提高空气/氧气比,涂层中WC保留率明显提高,使涂层硬度比氧气助燃时得到明显提高;采用空气助燃进行喷涂,可以得到厚度超过5mm的WC-12Co涂层.     

Mathematical modelling of Inconel 718 particles in HVOF thermal spraying

High velocity oxygen fuel (HVOF) thermal spray technology is able to produce very dense coating without over-heating powder particles. The quality of coating is directly related to the particle parameters such as velocity, temperature and state of melting or solidification. In order to obtain this particle data, mathematical models are developed to predict particle dynamic behaviour in a liquid fuelled high velocity oxy-fuel thermal spray gun. The particle transport equations are solved in a Lagrangian manner and coupled with the three-dimensional, chemically reacting, turbulent gas flow. The melting and solidification within particles as a result of heat exchange with the surrounding gas flow is solved numerically. The in-flight particle characteristics of Inconel 718 are studied and the effects of injection parameters on particle behavior are examined. The computational results show that the particles smaller than 10 μm undergo melting and solidification prior to impact while the particle larger than 20 μm never reach liquid state during the process.     

Numerical modeling of a low temperature high velocity air fuel spraying process with injection of liquid and metal particles

An analysis of a low temperature high velocity air fuel (LTHVAF) thermal spray process is presented using computational fluid dynamics (CFD). The originality of the process lies in the injection of liquid (water) upstream of the powder injection to control to gas temperature and, therefore, the heat transfer to the injected particles. First, computation fluid dynamic techniques are implemented to solve the mass, momentum, and energy conservation equations in the gas phase. A turbulence model based on the renormalized group theory (RNG) is used for the turbulent flow field. The gas dynamic data are, then, used to model the behavior of the liquid droplets and particles in the gas flow field. The calculated results show that the liquid flow rate should range between 20 and 30 kg/h to achieve the optimal gas characteristics for particle treatment. They also show that particle velocity and temperature are strongly affected by particle size. At the gun exit, the particle velocity and temperature range between 700 and 300 m/s and between 900 and 400 K, respectively, for Cu and Ni particles with size distributions of 1 to 50 μm. As expected, the smaller particles have higher velocity and temperature. The metal coatings (Nickel and copper) produced by the LTHVAF spray process are characterized by low oxide content, low residual stresses, high deposition rates, and good bonding to the substrate.     

Current Status and Future Prospects of Warm Spray Technology

A modification of high-velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) thermal spray process named as warm spray (WS) has been developed. By injecting room temperature inert gas into the combustion gas jet of HVOF, the temperature of the propellant gas can be controlled in a range approximately from 2300 to 1000 K so that many powder materials can be deposited in thermally softened state at high impact velocity. In this review, the characteristics of WS process were analyzed by using gas dynamic simulation of the flow field and heating/acceleration of powder particles in comparison with HVOF, cold spray (CS), and high-velocity air-fuel (HVAF) spray. Transmission electron microscopy of WS and CS titanium splats revealed marked differences in the microstructures stemming from the different impact temperatures. Mechanical properties of several metallic coatings formed under different WS and CS conditions were compared. Characteristics of WC-Co coatings made by WS were demonstrated for wear resistant applications.     

高速低温喷涂气固作用行为及喷涂系统研究进展

高速低温喷涂是利用固相或含固相的低温粉末在高速度、高动能作用下碰撞基体表面沉积的喷涂方法,具有氧化轻微、 结合牢固、组织致密、综合力学性能优异等潜在优势,在高性能金属或金属基复合材料涂层制备、增材制造和零件损伤修复等领域获得广泛关注。以粉末低温高速碰撞沉积过程为主线,凝练现有冷喷涂和低温超音速火焰喷涂两种具体工艺的共性特征,阐明喷涂气流与粉末颗粒的气固两相交互作用规律,分析出合理调控颗粒温度和速度是改善沉积体性能的关键。其次分析高速低温喷涂设备系统的构成,详细讨论各核心部件的结构设计策略及对气固流动行为的影响,总结出通过调整工艺参数与喷枪结构,可以实现颗粒温度和速度的按需控制。最后,对高速低温喷涂工艺及设备系统发展目前尚存的关键问题进行展望。总结如何通过喷涂参数与装置设计,最终达成调控沉积体性能的目的,有助于深入理解高速低温喷涂的沉积机理,对研制高性能的喷涂设备系统具有参考意义。     

Study on non-electric welding and its application in emergency maintenance

Non-electric welding is a novel effwient technique for emergency maintenance,which utilizes the heat released by self-propagating combustion to join metals without needing any power supply or gas sources.Non-electric welding material,named non-electric welding pen,was prepared by utilizing highly-exothermic thermit (CuO + Al) with other additive powders.The effects of reactant particle size and mixing uniformity on the combustion characteristic of the welding pen were investigated.The results show that the particle size of reactant powder has a significant effect on combustion velocity.With increasing the particle size of reactant powder,the combustion velocity decreases obviously.Moreover,mixing uniformity and particle size are shown to be main factors influencing heat produced in single time,and accordingly affect the combustion temperature.Welding experiments were performed with 45 steel as the base material,and results show that the joint is of a metallurgic bonding with the tensile strength above 280 MPa,which proves non-electric welding a fusion welding technique.     

Deposition of WC-Co Coatings by a Novel High Pressure HVOF

WC-Co coatings are primarily deposited using the high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) spray process. However, the decomposition and decarburization of carbides during spraying affects the wear performance and fracture toughness of the coatings. In this paper, a novel high pressure HVOF was developed to achieve lower particle temperature and higher particle velocity. It enables combustion chamber pressures up to 3.0 MPa. The influence of combustion chamber pressure and oxygen/fuel ratio on WC-Co particle velocity and temperature levels were analyzed by numerical simulation. The experimental results show that the combustion chamber pressure and the oxygen/fuel ratio have a significant influence on particle velocity and melting degree, as well as on the microstructure and microhardness of the coating. High velocity WC-Co particles in different states, i.e., molten, semi-molten, and non-molten can be readily obtained by changing the spraying conditions. A comparison to the conventional JP-5000 was also performed.     

Computational simulation of liquid-fuelled HVOF thermal spraying

Liquid-fuelled high-velocity oxygen–fuel (HVOF) thermal spraying systems are gaining more attentions due to their advantage of producing denser coatings in comparison to their gas-fuelled counterparts. The flow through a HVOF gun is characterized by a complex array of thermodynamic phenomena involving combustion, turbulence and compressible flow. Advanced computational models have been developed to gain insight to the thermochemical processes of thermal spraying, however little work has been reported for the liquid-fuelled systems. This investigation employs a commercial finite volume CFD code to simulate the flow field through the most widely used liquid-fuel HVOF gun, JP5000 (Praxair, US). By combining numerical combustion and discrete phase models the turbulent spray flame is captured and the development of supersonic gas flow is revealed. The flow field is thoroughly examined by adjusting the nozzle throat diameter and combustion chamber size. The influence of fuel droplet size on the flame shame shape and combusting gas flow is also examined.     

吸入式喷砂枪内部结构对颗粒输送及加速性能的影响

吸入式喷砂枪作为喷砂装置中的常用设备,是颗粒输送及加速的重要部件。为研究吸入式喷砂枪内部流场及颗粒运动情况,以及丸粒吸入口入射角、混合室直径对吸入式喷砂枪丸粒吸入及加速效果的影响,采用CFD软件Fluent进行气固耦合仿真计算。结果表明:随着丸粒吸入口入射角越小,颗粒输送及加速性能越好;随着混合室直径变化,吸入式喷砂枪的引射系数存在一个最优值,能使颗粒的输送效果最好,该最优值还随压缩空气压力的增大而减小,而混合室直径越小对颗粒的加速效果越好。研究结果为吸入式喷砂枪的设计及选用提供了参考。     

Zur Verzunderung von Weichstahl in Stickstoff-Kohlendioxid-Gemischen mit geringen Sauerstoffzusätzen

Scaling of mild steel in nitrogen/carbon dioxide mixtures with low oxygen contents The scaling rate is controlled by the transfer of the oxidising gas to the surface of the solid material. This transfer can be described by the laws governing transfer in fluids; it is thus possible to establish a mathematic model of as a function of various oven parameters (oxygen content of combustion gases, type and velocity of gas flow, location of work pieces being treated in the oven, and temperatures). The rates follow a mixed linear and parabolic law.