Recent progress of soybean protein foods: Chemistry,technology, and nutrition

Abstract

The most important chemical reactions during the process of soybean protein foods are the intermolecular reactions among the residues exposed on the surface of the protein molecules through the denaturation process. In native soybean protein molecules, most amino acid residues responsible for the reactions—such as cysteine (‐SH), cystine (S‐S), and hydrophobic amino acid residues—are buried in the inside region of the molecule, inaccessible to water. These residues become reactable with each other through the exposure from the inside by heat denaturation during processing. The unique textures of soybean protein foods, such as tofu, kori‐tofu, yuba, and texturized products produced by extruder, etc., are the results of both the intermolecular interchange reaction between the exposed ‐SH and S‐S groups and the intermolecular hydrophobic reaction among the exposed hydrophobic amino acid residues. The exposure of amino acid residues is also important for the hydrolysis of soybean proteins by enzymes, through which soy sauce is produced, because the cleavage of the peptide bonds is carried out after binding between the active sites of the enzymes and the enzyme‐specific amino acid residues exposed through denaturation. These facts indicate the importance of the three‐dimensional structures of soybean protein molecules in the technology of soybean protein foods. Recently great progress has been made in the manufacturing techniques of soybean protein foods, such as soy milk, tofu, abura‐age, textured protein products, and soy sauce. The quality of soy milk and tofu was very much improved by controlling the action of the biologically active substances such as lipoxygenases and β‐glucosidases which are contained in soybeans and responsible for the production of off‐flavor. A new abura‐age, whose texture does not deteriorate during frozen storage or drying, was developed by using soybean protein isolate and oil as materials. A new type of textured protein product was also developed: a deep‐fat‐fried nugget with unique texture and flavor. This product is textured through a twin‐type extruder. For soy sauce manufacturing new biotechnology has been applied on the pilot‐plant scale. This is a system of continuous fermentation through bioreactors with the immobilized whole cells of microorganisms, by which the fermentation term is shortened strikingly. New and important discoveries were made on the nutrition of soybean proteins. According to recent experiments using human beings, the amino acid score of soybean proteins is 100 for persons more than 2 years old, indicating that the nutritive value of soybean proteins is equal to animal proteins. Further, it was elucidated that soybean proteins have cholesterol‐lowering action. A discussion is presented on the future of the soybean protein foods.     

Commercial soybean lecithins: a source of hidden allergens?

 Soybeans are known to be allergenic for adults as well as for infants. Processed products derived from soybeans are used in a wide spectrum of foods, drugs and other industrial products. In particular, soybean lecithins are used as stabilizers and emulsifiers and may not be suspected as possible source of allergens. To test this hypothesis, six commercial soy lecithins were investigated for residual allergenicity and compared with extracts from raw and heat-treated soybeans. They were characterized, the protein content was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and allergens were analyzed with specific IgE from patients' sera using the enzyme allergosorbent test (EAST), EAST inhibition and protein blotting followed by immunodetection. For further characterization a polyclonal antiserum directed against soybean extract and a monoclonal antibody (mAb 025) directed against the acidic subunit of the soybean storage protein glycinin were used. The EAST studies revealed that three of six sera from patients with allergy to soybeans contained IgE to four soy lecithins (Topcithin 50, Topcithin 300, Emulfluid FD 12, Epikuron 100 P), the same lecithins which were found to contain residual proteins. Two lecithins with a protein content of less than 20 ppb did not bind IgE. EAST inhibition showed that the allergens from soy lecithin were immunologically more closely related to allergens from heat-treated soybeans than to those from raw soybeans. Protein blotting and immunodetection of the protein extract from the lecithins resulted in various allergen bands between 14 kDa and 94 kDa. A heat-stable allergen of 39 kDa was recognized by the monoclonal antibody and thus identified as a subunit of glycinin. The results obtained were confirmed by a mediator release assay based on a rat basophil leukemia cell line. Lecithins that contained residual proteins caused a specific mediator release, suggesting that these products may induce allergic symptoms. Our results show that soybean lecithins are capable of introducing hidden allergens to processed foods and that the IgE binding potential corresponds to the total protein determined by ELISA. Furthermore, it appears to be possible that by monitoring the protein content soy lecithins can be applied which may be safe for the allergic consumer. Received: 22 January 1998     

中国大豆工业当前形势及展望

叙述了中国大豆资源情况。由于国内需求的迅速增长 ,必须扩大大豆种植面积和提高产量 ,并且增加国外进口数量。中国传统大豆制品业历史悠久 ,大豆工业经过 5 0多年的发展已具一定规模 ,文章对中国大豆工业的现状进行了叙述。预计未来 5年 ,中国大豆加工量将迅速增长 ;大豆油厂的规模和布局将逐渐趋于合理 ;将更加注重大豆蛋白产品的功能特性 ,积极采用功能特性修饰技术 ,开发出更多种类的功能性、专用性大豆蛋白产品 ;同时将更加注重大豆资源的综合利用 ,在制油和生产大豆蛋白产品的同时 ,从大豆所含植物化学成分中开发出附加值更高的新产品。     

Allergenicity of soybean: new developments in identification of allergenic proteins, cross-reactivities and hypoallergenization technologies

Soybean is considered one of the "big eight" foods that are believed to be responsible for 90% of all allergenic reactions. Soy allergy is of particular importance, because soybeans are widely used in processed foods and, therefore, represent a particularly insidious source of hidden allergens. Although significant advances have been made in the identification and characterization of soybean allergens, scientists are not completely certain about which proteins in soy cause allergic reactions. At least 16 allergens have been identified. Most of them, as with other plant food allergens, have a metabolic, storage, or protective function. These allergens belong to protein families which have conserved structural features in relation with their biological activity, which explains the wide immunochemical cross-recognition observed among members of the legume family. Detailed analysis of the structure-allergenicity relationships has been hampered by the complexity and heterogeneity of soybean proteins. A variety of technological approaches have been attempted to decrease soybean allergenicity. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the current body of knowledge on the identification and characterization of soybean allergens, as well as an update on current hypoallergenization techniques.     

脂肪氧合酶诱导脂质氧化与大豆制品品质的关系

大豆因其价廉、营养价值高而广泛应用于食品加工中。然而,普通大豆种子含有脂肪氧合酶,该酶催化多不饱和脂肪酸氧化产生氢过氧化物及其降解产物,作为潜在的反应物质它们可引起大豆蛋白质和氨基酸等的劣变,从而影响豆制品的品质。本文综述了氧化脂质与蛋白质和氨基酸的相互作用,以及脂肪氧合酶诱导脂质氧化与大豆制品品质的关系。简要回顾了通过控制脂肪氧合酶的活性,实现大豆制品品质及风味改善方面的最新进展。     

醇法大豆浓缩蛋白的加工、性能与应用

醇法大豆浓缩蛋白在大豆蛋白产品中占有重要地位,但它在国内的发展水平还很低.为了促进我国大豆浓缩蛋白的发展,对其加工、性能和应用进行了阐述.逆流浸出法是目前较常见的醇法大豆浓缩蛋白制备方法.醇法大豆浓缩蛋白的溶解度较低,但是它有较强的持水性、持油性以及较高的黏度,通过改性可以进一步改善其功能性质.传统的醇法大豆浓缩蛋白主要应用于肉制品加工,大量的醇法大豆浓缩蛋白被加工成组织蛋白.经过改性的醇法大豆浓缩蛋白可以应用于对乳化性及持油性要求较高的高脂肪食品中.     

Antinutritional and/or toxic factors in soybean (Glycine max (L) Merril) seeds: comparison of different cultivars adapted to the southern region of Brazil

Soybean (Glycine max (L) Merril) seeds are known to contain different proteins displaying antinutritional and/or toxic effects, such as soybean agglutinin (an N‐acetylgalactosamine‐specific lectin), proteinase inhibitors (Kunitz‐ and Bowman–Birk‐type trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitors) and urease (seed and tissue isoforms). Two other toxic proteins were previously isolated from soybeans, soyatoxin (21 kDa) and soybean toxin (18.4 kDa), which are immunologically related to canatoxin, a toxic protein from Canavalia ensiformis (jackbean) seeds. In this work we have screened crude extracts from seeds of six different soybean cultivars, which together represent most of the crop harvested in the southern region of Brazil, for the presence of urease, trypsin inhibitory and haemagglutination activities, intraperitoneal toxicity in mice and immunoreactivity against anti‐canatoxin antibodies. Significant differences were found in the contents of proteinase inhibitors, lectin, urease activity and lethality in mice. The relevance of these findings to the agronomic qualities and to the choice of soybean cultivars to be used as food or feed is discussed. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Lactational response to soybean meal, heated soybean meal, and extruded soybeans with ruminally protected methionine

Seventy-three high producing Holstein cows were arranged in a 3 X 2 factorial to evaluate three protein supplements (soybean meal, heat-treated soybean meal, and extruded blend of soybeans and soybean meal) without or with 15 g/head/d of ruminally protected DL-methionine during wk 4 through 16 postpartum. Total mixed diets contained (DM basis) 30% corn silage, 15% alfalfa hay, and 55% of the respective concentrate mix. Milk production was higher when cows were fed either heated soybean product instead of soybean meal. Methionine supplementation increased production when fed with soybean meal (32.2 and 33.8 kg/d) but not when fed with heat-treated soybean meal (34.5 and 33.0 kg/d) or extruded soybeans (36.2 and 34.4 kg/d). Milk fat percentages were lower with extruded soybeans (3.01, 2.93, and 2.66) and were similar without (2.83) or with (2.90) supplemental methionine. Milk protein percentages were highest when fed soybean meal, lowest with extruded soybeans (3.02, 2.92, and 2.87), and higher with supplemental methionine (2.91 and 2.96). Dry matter intake was higher when fed supplemental methionine (20.0 and 21.3 kg/d). Production of milk in early lactation high producing dairy cows was increased by supplementing a soybean meal diet with ruminally protected methionine or by replacing the soybean meal with heat-treated soybean meal, soybeans, or a mixture of the two.     

Changes of soybean quality during storage as related to soymilk and tofu making

ABSTRACT:  Soybeans are stored and transported under various humidity and temperature conditions. Soymilk and tofu are two of the most important foods made from whole soybeans. The objective of this study was to investigate the influence of storage conditions on soybean quality as related to soymilk and tofu-making properties. Soybeans of 3 different genotypes (Proto, IA2032, and Vinton 81) were stored in varying conditions: temperature ranging from 4 to 50 °C, relative humidity from 55% to 80%, initial moisture content from 6% to14%, and storage time up to 15 mo depending upon storage conditions. The effects of different storage conditions on soybean color, solids and protein extractability, soymilk pH, tofu yield, tofu solids and protein contents, tofu color, and texture were investigated. While no significant changes occurred for the soybeans stored at 4 °C, the soybeans stored at high temperatures (30 to 50 °C) exhibited significant quality loss ( P < 0.05). The degradation of soybean lightness (Hunter L ), color difference (Δ E ), and solid extractability exhibited a linear relationship with time. Soak weight decreased at high temperature and relative humidity, but increased at mild storage conditions. Several combinations of storage conditions at temperatures exceeding 30 °C produced a drastic loss in tofu yield. Storage also affected the tofu making process by reducing optimum mixing time to produce the highest tofu yield. Varietal difference in soybean storability was observed. The results provided useful information for the soybean processing industry to store soybeans using the optimal storage conditions and to estimate soybean quality after storage.     

Isoflavone profiles,phenol content,and antioxidant activity of soybean seeds as influenced by cultivar and growing location in Ohio

Isoflavone levels and isoflavone chemical composition in soybeans vary between planting locations although the exact factors which control isoflavone biosynthesis are unclear. We compared levels of 12 isoflavones in soybean seeds of six cultivars grown in four different locations in Ohio in 2002 as determined by high‐performance liquid chromatography. Antioxidant activity contained in plant‐based foods can improve food oxidative stability and phenolics and isoflavones have proven active in food systems. Radical scavenging activity was assessed using the 2,2‐diphenyl‐1‐picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical. Total phenolics (TPCs) were determined by using Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. Total isoflavones (TIs) varied five‐fold (1573–7710 nmol g^?1) between seeds from the various location–cultivar combinations. One location (Wooster, Ohio) produced seeds containing half the isoflavones as the other locations tested apparently due to poor growing conditions. The cultivars could be divided into two groups based on TI, one having approximately 50% more isoflavones. Surprisingly, across the entire data set, with increasing TI, the proportion of isoflavones accounted for by the daidzein family increased due primarily to malonyl daidzin. DPPH scavenging did not differ significantly by location or cultivar (P > 0.05) and did not correlate with TPC or TI. Profiling soybean isoflavones could help elucidate how isoflavone biosynthesis is regulated and lead to better disease resistance of soybean crops and soy foods with greater health benefits. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

豆粕中抗营养因子检测技术研究进展

豆粕蛋白质含量高,营养成分比较平衡,是单胃动物很好的日粮蛋白源,在动物饲料中的应用有着广阔的发展前景。但是,豆粕中存在的大豆抗原蛋白(致敏因子)、低聚糖、植酸以及致甲状腺肿素等多种抗营养因子极大限制了其推广应用。介绍了豆粕中3种主要抗营养因子检测方法的研究进展和应用效果,对其存在的问题进行了总结,并对未来发展趋势进行了展望。     

ANTIOXIDANT PROPERTIES OF ETHANOLIC AND METHANOLIC EXTRACTS FROM MONASCUS-FERMENTED SOYBEANS

Soybeans are very common foods in oriental countries used as a meat substitute. Monascus species possess functional components and have been used on traditional fermented food. Solid-state fermentation of the soybean substrate by Monascus species is a new area of investigation. In the present study, methanolic extracts from three samples exhibited better antioxidant activity in the conjugated diene method, reducing power, scavenging ability on 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radicals and chelating ability on ferrous ions. Monascus species inoculated onto the soybean substrate contributed higher reducing power, scavenging and chelating abilities and higher amounts of phenol components than uninoculated soybean product. Overall, Monascus- fermented soybeans showed better antioxidant properties and can be developed as a new dietary supplement and functional food.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION

Soybeans and soy products are rich in isoflavones and are very common foods used as a meat substitute in oriental countries. Fungus Monascus has been used as a traditional fermented food and its metabolic products are also utilized as food pigments or biological agents in oriental countries for centuries. Many reporters showed that soy isoflavone aglycones and Monascus spp. metabolite exhibited physiological activities. In addition, previous studies showed a fermentation process using microorganisms to inoculate onto a nonsoluble material that can produce chemicals and enzymes. Therefore, the ethanolic and methanolic extracts from Monascus -fermented soybeans were evaluated for antioxidant properties, and the information obtained would be more valuable than that from soybeans to develop new functional foods.     

Why are some proteins allergenic? Implications for biotechnology

In recent years, a number of agricultural crops have been developed with recombinant DNA technology. Because the transferred genes code for proteins that are ordinarily not present in these particular foods, there is concern about the potential allergenicity of these new crop varieties. Foods contain many proteins; however, only a small fraction are allergens. Although the structural properties of proteins that cause allergic reactions have not been characterized completely, known food allergens in general have molecular weights between 10 and 70 kDa, stimulate the immune response (induce the production of allergen‐specific IgE), and are stable molecules that are resistant to processing, cooking, and digestion. Although any type of food is potentially allergenic, the majority of food allergies are caused by a small group of foods (cows’ milk, nuts, legumes, eggs, seafood). Cross‐reactivities occur within a given food group and between foods and seemingly unrelated proteins.

Even though most transgenic foods are considered safe, biotechnological manipulation can affect crop allergenicity. The safety evaluation of transgenic foods is relatively easy when the allergenicity of the gene sources are known. The recombinant food can be assayed using traditional in vitro inhibition assays. Recently, reduced allergen content of biotechnologically altered rice was shown. In contrast, increased allergenicity was demonstrated in transgenic soybeans after a methionine‐ and cystine‐rich protein from Brazil nuts, identified as a major Brazil nut allergen, was expressed in soybean to increase its content of sulfur‐rich amino acids. The most difficult issue regarding transgenic food allergenicity is the effect of transfer of proteins of unknown allergenicity. The challenge is to determine whether these proteins are allergenic as there is no generally accepted, established, definitive procedure to define or predict a protein's allergenicity. Comparing the structures of the transferred protein with known allergens and allergen epitopes could be one approach. Additionally, Th‐2 cell stimulation, the production of IL‐4, and IgE antibody induction in animal models may help to evaluate the potential allergenicity of a protein.

In conclusion, there is no evidence that recombinant proteins in newly developed foods are more allergenic than traditional proteins. The evidence suggests that the vast majority of these proteins will be completely safe for the consumer. The concern is that if a few transgenic foods cause serious allergic reactions, this could undermine the public's confidence in such products. It is essential that proper guidelines are established and tests are developed to assure that this will not occur.     

我国大豆蛋白加工产业现状及发展趋势

随着人民日益增长的美好生活需要和科学技术的快速发展,我国食品行业,尤其是大豆蛋白加工产业的发展登上了新的台阶。为更好地引导大豆蛋白加工产业的健康可持续发展,对大豆蛋白加工产业的现状及发展趋势进行综述。从原料、产业链、加工企业及市场需求等4个方面,介绍了我国大豆蛋白原料供需、加工企业规模、产品结构等方面情况,分析了大豆蛋白产业亟须解决的问题及发展趋势。国产非转基因大豆在大豆蛋白加工产业中存在竞争优势,提高我国非转基因大豆的自给能力,研发高附加值的大豆蛋白产品,有利于形成与进口大豆错位竞争、相互补充的格局,从而促进我国大豆蛋白产业长期高质量发展。     

转基因大豆及其制品的安全性和检测研究现状

转基因大豆及其制品日益增多,已经直接或间接地成为人类消费的食品,进入人们的食物链.转基因大豆及其制品对人体健康及生态环境的影响越来越引起人们关注.在查阅文献的基础上,对转基因大豆及其制品的安全性、检测现状进行了概述,以期为人们在这方面研究和认识提供一些借鉴.     

Effect of acetic acid treatment on isoflavones and carbohydrates in pickled soybean

Acetic acid treatment improves the physical, chemical, and physiological properties of soybeans. This study investigated the changes in isoflavone and carbohydrate profiles in four soybean cultivars subjected to different acetic acid treatment durations. The sum of total isoflavone content of the pickled soybeans and the pickling solution was increased by 30–93% after acetic acid treatment for 30 days. In the comparison to four isoflavone groups of the untreated soybean, malonyl glucosides were decreased by 17–41%, whereas glucosides were increased by 54–160% in the pickled soybeans. In particular, aglucones were found in the pickled soybeans, but not in the untreated soybeans. Following acetic acid treatment, the total carbohydrate content in the pickled soybeans was 50–65% less than that of untreated soybeans. In particular, oligosaccharides and sucrose in the pickled soybeans decreased significantly (> 50%) within the first 24 h. This study provides important information on the changes in isoflavone and certain carbohydrates profiles during soybean pickling, and may be useful to produce functional soybean-based foods containing more bioactive compounds.     

Chemical characterization of commercial soybean products

Some commercial soybean products—soybean protein isolate, soybean flour, textured soybean, whole soybeans, and soybean dairy-like products (liquid and powdered milks, shake, yogurt, and infant formulas)—have been analysed for their content in solids, ash, pH, acidity, protein, fat, phosphorus, and some metal ions (calcium, copper, iron, potassium and zinc). The differences found in the protein, phosphorus, and metal ion content and other chemical properties of these products are discussed, taking into account the procedures used to produce the above derivatives.     

致敏大豆蛋白P34及其清除方法的研究进展

大豆作为"八大"过敏食品之一,其过敏患者数量约占食物过敏总人数的25%。如何降低大豆产品的致敏性,保证消费者的安全,已经成为食品安全领域一个热议的话题。大豆中含有多种致敏因子,如Gly-m Bd 30K蛋白、Gly-m Bd 28K蛋白和Gly-m Bd 28K蛋白等。其中Gly-m Bd 30K蛋白作为致敏性最强的过敏原,能被65%的大豆过敏患者血清识别,在几种过敏蛋白中占着较突出的地位。本文综述了Gly-m Bd 30K蛋白的抗原表位、去除方法的研究现状。其中,酶法处理、超高压法、挤压膨化法等降低大豆致敏性的研究已取得了一定的成果,这为进一步提高大豆及其制品的品质质量,保证其在食品工业和畜牧业方面的安全利用提供了科学参考。     

Assessing the digestibility of genetically modified soybean: Physiologically based in vitro digestion and fermentation model

Gastrointestinal digestibility of new proteins inserted in food supply is one of significant parameters for assessing safety of genetically modified (GM) foods on the assumption that digestive stability is undesirable. Digestive stability of GM soybean was evaluated under the physiologically based in vitro digestion model. Electrophoresis was used to follow the in vitro sequential digestions/fermentation procedure and Western blotting was employed to confirm the new protein in GM soybean.CP4EPSPS newly expressed in GM soybean was completely digested in 15 s in the gastric fluid in this model. In the assay of fermentation of new protein, CP4EPSPS was also complete degraded and no fermentation products were found during 24 h of colon fermentation. Results from this study suggested that CP4EPSPS in GM soybean does not have a potential allergenicity due to its complete digestion within a very short time in gastric fluid. No formation of colonic protein fermentation products confirms that new protein is not capable of initiating colon cancer.     

大豆高蛋白质粉的研发

大豆高蛋白质粉是对油料蛋白进行精深加工而研制的一种新产品.主要根据目前消费市场上生产和销售的豆乳粉、豆粉、豆奶及豆浆中低档次产品情况,按照营养效价平衡配比,选用非转基因优质大豆为原料,添加了磷脂与植脂末强化剂而研发的高蛋白、高档次、高价值冲调用终端产品.工艺技术特点是对原料进行二次浸出,对凝乳和乳清进行二次分离,温度自控,连续中和,对蛋白质进行后修饰改性,使产品内在质量为蛋白质含量高,溶解性强,分散性能好.外观质量为具有牛乳一样的乳白色,口感细腻,风味宜人.研发的大豆蛋白质粉与国内外同类产品相比,质量有所提高,技术有所创新,保鲜有所进步,填补了国内空白.产品可广泛应用于保健品、食品、饮品领域,社会和经济效益明显.