外窗开启方式对居住建筑自然通风影响研究

利用计算流体力学的分析方法,用平均空气龄和空气龄标准差对自然通风量的大小及其通风均匀性进行研究。对采用推拉窗、上悬窗、平开窗的板式居住建筑在N、NNW、WN风向下的自然通风状况进行对比分析。研究发现,对于自然通风的均匀性,平开窗开启方式优于推拉窗、上悬窗开启方式。对于建筑自然通风量,当风向为N及NNW风向时,推拉窗开启方式优于上悬窗、平开窗开启方式。当风向为WN风向时,平开窗开启方式优于推拉窗、上悬窗的开启方式。当同时考虑建筑自然通风量与自然通风均匀性时,平开窗开启方式具有明显的优势。     

Predicting integrated thermal and acoustic performance in naturally ventilated high-rise buildings using CFD and FEM simulation

The study of ventilation windows for both natural ventilation and noise mitigation has drawn significant attention recently. This paper presents the numerical approaches to analyse the integrated thermal and acoustical performance of ventilation windows, for a residential building in tropical climate which employs double-layer noise mitigation window for natural ventilation. Given a set of outdoor wind conditions, the distributions of indoor flow and temperature fields are simulated using Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model. The thermal comfort is evaluated using statistical Predicted Mean Vote (PMV) method. For the acoustic performance, noise radiation from road traffic is assumed as the noise source, and the sound insulation of building façade is simulated using Finite Element Method (FEM). From the simulation results, it is found that the thermal satisfaction response is closely related to the inlet wind temperature and speed, and the window opening size greatly affects the ventilation performance. From the case study in Singapore, during certain season, day/night time and with sufficient wind flow, the ventilation window can provide enough fresh air, maintain adequate thermal comfort and quiet acoustic environment for the occupants. The numerical approaches presented in this paper are applicable to general window design studies, and the simulation findings can be incorporated into green building planning. The advantages of using simulation approaches are highlighted and their limitations are discussed.     

Estimating natural-ventilation potential considering both thermal comfort and IAQ issues

Natural-ventilation potential (NVP) value can provide the designers significant information to properly design and arrange natural ventilation strategy at the preliminary or conceptual stage of ventilation and building design. Based on the previous study by Yang et al. [Investigation potential of natural driving forces for ventillation in four major cities in China. Building and Environment 2005;40:739–46], we developed a revised model to estimate the potential for natural ventilation considering both thermal comfort and IAQ issues for buildings in China. It differs from the previous one by Yang et al. in two predominant aspects: (1) indoor air temperature varies synchronously with the outdoor air temperature rather than staying at a constant value as assumed by Yang et al. This would recover the real characteristic of natural ventilation, (2) thermal comfort evaluation index is integrated into the model and thus the NVP can be more reasonably predicted. By adopting the same input parameters, the NVP values are obtained and compared with the early work of Yang et al. for a single building in four representative cities which are located in different climates, i.e., Urumqi in severe cold regions, Beijing in cold regions, Shanghai in hot summer and cold winter regions and Guangzhou in hot summer and warm winter regions of China. Our outcome shows that Guangzhou has the highest and best yearly natural-ventilation potential, followed by Shanghai, Beijing and Urumqi, which is quite distinct from that of Yang et al. From the analysis, it is clear that our model evaluates the NVP values more consistently with the outdoor climate data and thus reveals the true value of NVP.     

Experimental and numerical investigation on the distribution characteristics of wind pressure coefficient of airflow around enclosed and open-window buildings

In the present paper, the distribution characteristics of the wind pressure coefficient of the air flow around enclosed and open-window buildings were studied by using wind tunnel model tests and numerical analyses. A typical high-rise building model was designed and wind tunnel tests were performed for the airflow around the building for an enclosed and an open-window condition. The experimental findings were complemented by the numerical analysis. This study shows that the opening windows of a building has little influence on the wind pressure coefficients in the area around the window of adjacent area from window edge; the wind pressure coefficient increases slightly after opening the windows of the buildings. Opening the windows in the rooms adjacent to this window decreases the ventilation efficiency of the room although the influence is small. The time-average value of the wind pressure coefficient can effectively represent the magnitude of the instantaneous wind pressure coefficient. The wind pressure coefficient is independent of the wind velocity of inflow. Furthermore, this study also proposed the distribution characteristics of wind pressure coefficients with different incident angles of wind.     

Development of a computational tool to quantify architectural-design effects on thermal comfort in naturally ventilated rural houses

In the present study, the effect of the opening size and building direction on night hours thermal comfort in a naturally ventilated rural house is investigated. Initially, the airflow in and around the building is simulated using a validated computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model. Local climate night-time data (wind velocity and direction, temperature and relative humidity) are recorded in a weather station and the prevailing conditions are imposed in the CFD model as inlet boundary conditions. The produced airflow patterns are then used to evaluate indoor thermal comfort. For this reason, special thermal comfort indices, i.e. the well-known predicted mean vote (PMV) index and its modifications especially for natural ventilation, are calculated with respect to various residential activities. Mean values of these indices (output variables) within the occupied zone are calculated for different combinations of opening sizes and building directions (input variables), to generate a database of input–output pairs. Finally, the database is used to train and validate Radial Basis Function Artificial Neural Network (RBF ANN) input–output “meta-models”. It is demonstrated that the proposed methodology leads to reliable thermal comfort predictions, while the optimum design variables are easily recognized.     

A study on terraced apartments and their natural ventilation performance in hot and humid regions

Terraced apartments as a typology of the buildings are new approaches to meet energy conservation targets. This principle in the form of interactive spaces contributes to an incorporation of interior and exterior, daylight addition and exploitation of natural ventilation. This study mainly investigates the natural ventilation exploitation of a terraced apartment in the hot and humid region. One solid block and 4 porous apartments with different terrace depths (TD) are evaluated using computational fluid dynamics (CFD) analysis. The k-ε turbulence model was adapted to simulate airflow in and around a mid-rise building with 42 residential blocks. CFD analysis compares the effect of permeability in the form of terraces on wind behaviour and natural ventilation efficiency in a mid-rise building. Ventilation assessment parameters such as mean air velocity and mean age of air are measured to compare the natural ventilation performance. The simulation results clearly indicate that the implementation of permeability in the form of terraces can enhance building natural ventilation performance significantly. However, it is proved that some physical configurations such as terrace depth can influence this performance greatly. According to the results, increasing the terrace depth up to 1.2 meters will enhance the mean wind velocity 40%–88% inside the room, 10.61%–12.29% near the window and 63.44% on the openings. Velocity diagram follows a descending process after TD 1.2. The mean wind speed decreases to 25.53% inside the room, 15.09% inside terraces and 1.09% near the window. The average wind velocity on the openings is revealed to be 1.54 to 1.64 times larger in the porous models than the solid one. On the other hand, porous cases indicate lower values for the mean age of air compared to the solid model. This study provides proper guidelines to predict ventilation performance and to improve the design of naturally ventilated mid-rise buildings in hot and humid regions.     

Single-sided natural ventilation driven by wind pressure and temperature difference

Even though opening a window for ventilation of a room seems very simple, the flow that occurs in this situation is rather complicated. The amount of air going through the window opening will depend on the wind speed near the building, the temperatures inside and outside the room, the wind direction, the turbulence characteristics in the wind and the pressure variations caused by e.g. wind gusts. Finally, it also depends on the size, type and location of the opening. Many of these parameters are unsteady which makes the calculation of air-change rates even more complicated. In this work, full-scale wind tunnel experiments have been made with the aim of making a new expression for calculation of the airflow rate in single-sided natural ventilation. During the wind tunnel experiments it was found that the dominating driving force differs between wind speed and temperature difference depending on the ratio between the forces and the wind direction. This change is also found in the velocity profiles measured in the opening, which might change from wind dominated to temperature dominated under the same wind direction but with increasing temperature difference.     

Computational analysis of wind driven natural ventilation in buildings

The design of natural ventilation in buildings is often performed by means of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) techniques, whose application is gaining popularity. In the present study, Reynolds averaged Navier–Stokes equation (RANS) approach is applied to wind driven natural ventilation in a cubic building. Two different models are considered, namely the two-equation k–ɛ model and the Renormalization Group (RNG) theory. The velocity and pressure distribution inside and around the building are determined, as well as the ventilation rate, for three different configurations: cross ventilation, single-sided ventilation with an opening on the windward wall and single-sided ventilation with an opening on the leeward wall. The numerical results are compared with experimental data, showing a good agreement, particularly when using RNG. The discrepancy in the determination of the ventilation rate is reasonable and the flow distribution inside the building is properly described when RNG model is used. However, the k–ɛ model fails to determine the correct velocity components near the horizontal surfaces. According to these results, the RNG model can be considered a useful tool for the study of wind driven natural ventilation, especially for the assessment of the ventilation rate and of the air distribution inside a room.     

基于自然通风原理的通风窗智能控制系统构造

针对建筑自然通风原理及特点,分析了电动开窗器的原理,讨论了风压和热压作用下的电动开窗控制系统流程,以及通风窗和电动开窗器的选型,并提出一种基于自然通风原理的楼宇智能通风窗控制系统,给出了构成要素,同时对系统底层、中间层、上层的特点加以讨论。     

Investigating potential of natural driving forces for ventilation in four major cities in China

The potential of natural driving forces for ventilation in buildings is the possibility for providing sufficient outdoor air by only natural ventilation. Based on the early work of Fracastoro et al. (Fourth international conference on indoor air quality, ventilation and energy conservation in buildings—IAQVEC, vol. III, Hong Kong: The City University of Hong Kong; 2001. p. 1421–9.), we develop a simple prediction model for this natural ventilation potential applicable to Chinese residential buildings, using a simple analytical model of natural ventilation considering the combined effect of wind and thermal buoyancy forces. Comparing with the existing method developed by Fracastoro et al. (2001), the present prediction does not need sophisticated multi-zone modeling calculations and the constants in the model are no longer variables. Using the weather data from International Weather for Energy Calculations (IWEC) into our simple prediction model, the natural ventilation potentials for low-rise residential buildings in four representative cities of China including Beijing in the north, Shanghai in the east, Guangzhou in the south and Urumqi in the northwest were analyzed. We introduced the concept of the pressure difference Pascal hours (PDPH) for natural ventilation, and PDPH was calculated and compared for four cities. A high PDPH value means a great potential for application of natural ventilation. In addition, hourly effective pressure differences can be obtained and analyzed statistically. This information can help the designers to determine the building opening size, or to assess whether or when mechanical ventilation is necessary. The application of the model can be a simple design tool at preliminary design stage.     

自然通风建筑室内气流组织优化研究

通过fluent模拟软件对诸多因素中最为关键的风向、风速、开窗位置及面积等进行了优化模拟研究。结果表明:在西安地区,南向为最佳风向,室外风速在1.3～2.5 m/s之间,基本上都能满足自然通风要求,最佳风速为1.5 m/s;综合考虑采光和自然通风因素,窗户开在墙的中间为宜;北向面积适当减小有利于自然通风在室内形成较均匀的气流,在保证建筑节能标准的前提下,增大南向窗户面积有利于自然通风。     

Iterative Anwendung zweier Rechenmodelle zur Beurteilung der Lüftungserfordernisse für eine Vermeidung von Schimmelpilzwachstum

Iterative application of two simulation tools to enable the determination of the required airing to preclude mould growth in corners. A newly developed whole building model is able to determine the effect of different ventilation schemes on indoor climate. Feeding the resulting surface temperatures and humidities to a biohygrothermal model allows to assess the risk of mould growth. For given ambient conditions it is thus possible to determine the necessary minimum ventilation rate by iteratively applying the two models. As an example, different building constructions are investigated, showing the effect of different natural ventilation schemes (continuous ventilation versus pulse ventilation by opening the window) on the minimum mean air change rate required for preventing mould growth.     

建筑外窗自然通风流量系数的影响因素分析

流量系数是反映建筑开口自然通风量的一个重要参数。利用Fluent软件对不同形式的建筑开口在自然通风下的流量系数进行了模拟计算,分析其各项影响因素包括通风口面积、通风口高宽比、通风口开启角度、通风口两侧温差等的影响情况。再利用SPSS软件对模拟结果进行多元回归,定量分析平开窗、推拉窗以及悬窗3种开口的流量系数。     

Natural ventilation in buildings: measurement in a wind tunnel and numerical simulation with large-eddy simulation

Natural ventilation in buildings can create a comfortable and healthy indoor environment, and can save energy compared to mechanical ventilation systems. In building design the prediction of ventilation can be difficult; cases of wind-driven single-sided ventilation, where the effects of turbulence dominate, are particularly problematic to simulate. In order to investigate the mechanism of natural ventilation driven by wind force, large-eddy simulation (LES) is used. In the meanwhile, detailed airflow fields, such as mean and fluctuating velocity and pressure distribution inside and around building-like models were measured by wind tunnel tests and compared to LES results for model validation. Three ventilation cases, single-sided ventilation with an opening in windward wall, single-sided ventilation with an opening in leeward wall, and cross ventilation, are studied. In the wind tunnel, a laser Doppler anemometry was used to provide accurate and detailed velocity data. In LES calculations, two subgrid-scale (SS) models, a Smagorinsky SS model and a filtered dynamic SS model, were used. The numerical results from LES are in good agreement with the experimental data, in particular with the predicted airflow patterns and velocities around and within, and the surface pressures over, the models. This is considered to establish confidence in the application of the LES methods to the calculation of ventilation in buildings, in particular for single-sided ventilation cases.     

Natural ventilation potential for gymnasia-Case study of ventilation and comfort in a multisport facility in northeastern United States

The natural ventilation potential to maintain acceptable indoor air quality(IAQ) and thermal comfort in gymnasia was investigated using a university multisport facility in northeastern United States as a case study building. A parametric modeling study was conducted considering the effects of opening configurations and control strategies during the summer months. The thermal accuracy of the model was verified using field measurements during August 2015. Performance metrics for IAQ and thermal comfort were the percentages of occupied hours during which ventilation rate met or exceeded ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2013 and temperature met adaptive thermal comfort criteria of ASHRAE Standard55-2013, respectively. Wind direction was found having a major effect on cross ventilation rate. Wind and buoyancy driven forces could complement or oppose each other depending on the wind direction and opening position. Relative to the base case, larger net openings that were more evenly distributed performed better.Rooftop vents improved ventilation performance, particularly under unfavorable wind conditions. With improved opening configurations, the acceptable ventilation hours increased from 21.5% to99.5% of occupied time for the maximum occupancy. The strictest temperature-controlled strategy had the best thermal performance.Thermal comfort conditions could be maintained during 85.3% of the occupied hours. However, the temperature rule largely shortened the opening operation time, and consequently decreased the acceptable ventilation hours to only 47.1%. Continuously natural ventilation during occupied time gave the longest combined IAQ-thermal acceptable hours, 73.9% of the occupied time, although it moderately decreased the thermal comfort hours to74.2%.     

Outdoor thermal environment for different urban forms under summer conditions

The present work investigated the outdoor thermal environment for different urban forms under the summer conditions of Sendai, Japan and Guangzhou, China. Sendai has a moderate humid subtropical climate, whereas Guangzhou has a humid subtropical climate. Numerical simulations were performed with a coupled simulation method of convection, radiation, and conduction. A cubic non-linear k–ε model proposed by Craft et al. was selected as the turbulence model and three-dimensional multireflections of shortwave and longwave radiations were considered in the radiation simulation. Seven urban forms (the ratios of building distance to building height were 0.24, 0.36, 0.48, 0.71, 0.95, 1.19, and 1.43.) were studied. The openness and compactness of the urban forms were compared by developing a new assessment system. The following results were obtained. (1) The distributions of wind velocity around the buildings became polarized as building distance decreased, and the proportion of low wind velocity grew large. These conditions mainly caused poor ventilation and thermal discomfort. (2) The cooling effects of building shade became increasingly significant as building distance decreased because of the low level of exposure to strong sunshine in compact forms. (3) Safe outdoor thermal conditions (standard effective temperature ≤37 °C) can be partially achieved in Sendai by decreasing building distance, whereas the same could not be achieved in Guangzhou. Further countermeasures are essential in Guangzhou.     

Naturally ventilated and mixed-mode buildings—Part II: Optimal control

Natural ventilation and a combination of natural ventilation and fan-assisted cooling, in lieu of or as a supplement to air conditioning, offer significant reductions in building energy use in appropriate climates. In current practice, such buildings are operated with heuristic control strategies, involving the opening of windows under suitable indoor and outdoor conditions. Such methods are sub-optimal because they do not account for building thermal dynamics and predicted weather and therefore do not make decisions on the basis of estimated future conditions. This paper uses building thermal predictions from a data-driven thermal model to assess the impact of window and internal openings and fan operation. It then develops a means of ranking and choosing among a set of cooling strategies, with the objective of maintaining occupied-period temperatures within a specified range and minimizing fan energy use. The control algorithms were assessed with data from a test building.     

Interactions with window openings by office occupants

Based on almost seven years of continuous measurements, we have analysed in detail the influence of occupancy patterns, indoor temperature and outdoor climate parameters (temperature, wind speed and direction, relative humidity and rainfall) on window opening and closing behaviour. In this we have also considered the variability of behaviours between individuals. This paper begins by presenting some of the key findings from these analyses. We go on to develop and test several modelling approaches, including logistic probability distributions, Markov chains and continuous-time random processes. Based on detailed statistical analysis and cross-validation of each variant, we propose a hybrid of these techniques which models stochastic usage behaviour in a comprehensive and efficient way. We conclude by describing an algorithm for implementing this model in dynamic building simulation tools.     

How to use natural ventilation to cool narrow office buildings

Concern about global warming has resulted in a resurgence of interest in naturally ventilated offices. Windows opening can, most of the time, be enough to cool the buildings. To compare various strategies, simulations with the software TAS were made to analyse zone air flows, temperature evolution and needs for cooling in an office. Simulations show that sufficient day or night ventilation rate can be reached by window opening, even if wind characteristics are unfavourable. We studied which should be the size, shape and location of the window apertures to reach sufficient ventilation rates. We finally analysed the impact of the wind orientation and the degree of wind protection of the building on these ventilation rates.