Solving the soft furnishings fire problem (without incurring collateral damage)

Fires in which soft furnishings (upholstered furniture and beds) were either the first item ignited or were identified as the major item in the fire's growth are the deadliest of residential fires. This Special Issue of Fire and Materials on Furniture Flammability grew from a small session on this subject in Interflam 2019. The issue contains 14 papers that describe the fire problems of soft furnishings, research to better understand their burning behavior, and recent success in and promising approaches to reducing the losses from these fires. This introduction concludes with the author's challenges to the fire safety community for reducing the number and consequences of soft furnishings fires.     

The roles of standard cigarettes in assuring the ignition resistance of soft furnishings

Regulations for cigarette ignition resistance (CIR) of soft furnishings (beds and upholstered furniture) and less fire‐prone cigarettes have contributed substantially to the decrease in losses from cigarette‐initiated fires over time. Two standard reference cigarettes play key roles in mitigating these losses and in sustaining the effectiveness of the fire safety regulations as exogenous changes occur. SRM 1082 provides a uniform, durable supply of cigarettes for use in ASTM E2187 that assures manufacturers and regulators of compliance with regulations for reduced ignition propensity cigarettes; enables quality control of cigarette fire test performance; enables assurance of uniform interlaboratory test results; obviates effects on fire safety as tobacco crops and smokers change over time; and, when the original ASTM E2187 substrate material was no longer available, enabled adding a new, equivalent substrate. SRM 1196 provides a uniform, durable supply of cigarettes for assurance of consistent interlaboratory evaluation of the ignition resistance of soft furnishings using the mandated test methods; obviates possible unknown changes in soft furnishings' CIR due to the evolving ignition strength of the original test cigarette over time; and provided a test cigarette that was stronger than most cigarettes being smoked after manufacture of the original commercial test cigarette ceased.     

Soft furnishing fires: They're still a problem

Home fires in which soft furnishings were first ignited or contributed to fire spread cause a disproportionate share of US home fire deaths. Although the death toll from these fires is much lower than in the 1980s, the rate of death per 1000 reported fires has doubled. Data from the National Fire Incident Reporting System and the National Fire Protection Association's annual Fire Experience Survey were used to create national estimates of these fires and casualties. Including both fires in which upholstered furniture was the item first ignited and contributed most to fire spread, in 2013‐2017, upholstered furniture was involved in an estimated average of 7120 (2%) home fires per year, resulting in an average of 570 (22%) deaths per year. Mattresses or bedding were involved in estimated average of 10 530 (3%) home fires per year, resulting in an average of 370 (14%) deaths annually. In most of these fires and deaths, the item was first ignited. Smoking materials were the leading cause of these fires (20%‐26%) and associated deaths (52%‐54%). Various types of operating equipment and small open flames also play a role. Understanding the causes of these fires is essential to develop new strategies to prevent them.     

Estimating the impact of the mattress fire safety Standard 16 CFR Part 1633 on bed fire outcomes

Beds are a prevalent combustible in fatal fires in the United States effective 1 July 2007, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission promulgated a standard to severely reduce the heat release rate and the early heat output from mattresses and foundations when ignited by a flaming ignition source. This study estimates the Standard's success over its first decade using fire incidence, US population, and mattress sales data. The technique mitigates the influence of some exogenous factors that might have changed during this decade. The Standard is accomplishing its purpose, preventing approximately 65 fatalities (out of an estimated 95 fatalities in 2002‐2005) from bed fires annually during 2015‐2016, although not all pre‐Standard mattresses had yet been replaced. Compared to residential upholstered furniture fires, which were not affected by the Standard, the numbers of bed fires decreased by 12%, injuries by 34%, and deaths by 82% between 2005‐2006 and 2015‐2016. Per bed fire, injuries decreased by 25% and fatalities decreased by 67%, indicating that the severity of bed fires is being reduced.     

Influence of modern plastic furniture on the fire development in fires in homes: large‐scale fire tests in living rooms

About 80% of all fire fatalities in Germany occur because of fires in homes. It has been known for some time that modern materials (synonym for materials consisting mostly of synthetic polymers) tend to burn differently from older materials (synonym for materials consisting mostly of fibrous cellulosic substances) and it has been acknowledged that the amount of combustible plastics in homes has increased significantly over the last decades. To investigate the influence of modern furniture and ventilation conditions of fires in homes, a series of four large‐scale tests in two living rooms (LRs) with adjacent rooms (ARs) was performed by BAM and the Frankfurt fire service. Two LRs, one with older furniture and one with modern furniture, were tested twice each. Each test started with the ignition of a paper cushion on an upholstered chair. The influence of modern materials on the fire development was investigated, as well as the influence of the ventilation on the fire development. In all settings, an upholstered chair was the first burning item. Results of the test series show that fires in rooms with modern furniture develop faster than fires in rooms with older furniture. This is true for temperature development in the rooms as well as for smoke production.     

Fire fatality study

Over a six-year period, 530 fire fatalities resulting from 398 fires were studied in the State of Maryland. The study had two major objectives: (1) to determine the specific cause of death by a detailed autopsy stud of fire victims, and (2) to determine the specific cause of fatality-producing fire by an on-the-scene fire investigation. The fire fatality study was limited to residential fires and to fatalities that occurred within 6 h of the fire. The results of the toxicological analysis show that (1) 60% of the victims had a carboxyhemoglobin value greater than or equal to 50% carbon monoxide saturation, (2) an additional 20% had elevated carboxyhemoglobin with preexisting cardiovascular disease, (3) 11% of the victims had severe burns, (4) 9% were unexplained and (5) 40% of the victims had positive blood alcohol levels with 30% of these meeting the legal definition of intoxication (blood alcohol ≥0.1%). The fire investigations confirmed that the predominant fatal scenario is the cigarette ignition of upholstered furniture or bedding. This scenario accounted for 47% of the fires and 44% of the victims. Alcohol also appears to be significant factor in this scenario.     

Statistics of fires in dwellings involving textiles in the United Kingdom

There is widespread concern at present about the fire risk form the use of modern materials in upholstery and other domestic articles. One of the main characteristics of fires in dwellings which start with the ignition of textiles or furniture is that they have a high casualty rate compared with other kinds of domestic fires. Most of the casualties form such fires occur in fires which start in upholstery or bedding, often accidentally ignited by smokers' materials. Asphyxiations by smoke is the commonest cause of death in ‘textile’ and ‘upholstery’ fires. This paper presents relevant statistical information on fires in dwellings attended by local authority fire brigades which result from the ignition of upholstery, bedding, other textiles or furniture and the casualties which these fires cause.     

Examining the fire risk in London dwellings using the London Fire Brigade Incident database

Analysis of the Fire Brigade's database of fires in London between 2009 and 2020 provided insight into the level of fire safety in the city and how it varies across different types of dwellings and different levels of protection. Regarding the number of fires, fatalities, and injuries, fire safety in London has significantly improved on average over these years. However, average trends cannot analyze catastrophic fires with multiple fatalities, like at Grenfell Tower in 2017, as these events are too rare to form a suitable sample size. Dwelling fires are the most lethal in London: despite accounting for only 28% of fires, they lead to 87% of fatalities and 83% of injuries. The odds of a dwelling fire becoming fatal in London fell from 1 in 174 in 2009 to 1 in 208 in 2019, a decrease of 16%. The total number of fires has decreased over this period, and the number of fires where an alarm was raised has increased, suggesting that the prevention and detection layers of fire safety have improved, while our analysis suggests that the level of protection from the compartmentation and evacuation layers has remained constant over time. An analysis of the different layers of fire protection suggests that compartmentation was the most impactful layer, with a failure in compartmentation increasing the odds of a fire being fatal by 1.5 to 5 times. Overall, this analysis shows that the fire hazard to Londoners in general is low and the lowest since 2009; however, there is still a threat that should not be understated.     

Fire safety of soft furnishings—an overview

The fire risk posed by soft furnishings such as bedding materials and upholstered furniture and the strategies being developed to reduce the number of fire-related casualities are reviewed from a Canadian point of view. Statistics from Canada, the United States and the United Kingdom indicate that a substantial reduction in the number of fire deaths would be possible if the ability of assemblies of materials to resist ignition by smokers' materials, such as cigarettes and matches, could be improved. The post-ignition performance of furnishings that results in generation of heat, smoke and toxic gases is also important from a safety point of view. A need exists for both full-scale and small-scale fire tests, and for mathematical modelling for present and future control strategies.     

Modelling of heat release rate in upholstered furniture fire

Many fatal residential fires started from burning upholstered furniture, and so upholstered furniture fire has been studied rather extensively in developed countries. As many upholstered furniture were made in China, the hidden fire risk should be studied more. In this paper, full‐scale experiments on the burning of upholstered furniture manufactured in China were conducted and analyzed. The oxygen consumption method was used to measure the heat release rate in a room calorimeter. An ignition source of a 20‐kW gasoline pool fire of 0.2‐m diameter was used to test square foam cushions and 4‐seater sofas. A model of heat release rate predicting upholstered furniture fire in a room was developed on the basis of earlier Swedish works. Results were then used to justify the application of the Combustion Behaviour of Upholstered Furniture model to predict the heat release rate of furniture manufactured in China. The numerical values of key parameters in the model were determined. It is proposed to build up a database that can be used to model heat release rates upon burning furniture. Detailed procedures are illustrated in this paper.     

Do open flame ignition resistance treatments for cellulosic and cellulosic blend fabrics also reduce cigarette ignitions?

Mattresses/bedding and upholstered furniture are subject to ignition by cigarettes (smoulder) and open flames leading to injuries, fatalities and property damage. There are mandatory and voluntary cigarette ignition standards in the USA for mattresses (16 CFR 1632) and upholstered furniture (UFAC voluntary standards) as well as open flame ignition standards in California (TB 117) and the UK (BS 5852). Open flame ignition standards are being considered/developed for these products. Some suggest that fire retardant (FR) treatments to prevent/reduce open flame ignitions also reduce cigarette ignitions. Some reports suggest that the smoulder ignition propensity of some cellulosic fabrics can be affected adversely by open flame ignition resistance treatments. Ignitions caused by cigarettes and open flames result from different types of combustion that are retarded by different mechanisms. Flaming combustion is a gas phase reaction and occurs when heat causes degradation of the polymer releasing volatile products that undergo rapid oxidation in the air, whereas smouldering combustion is a direct oxidation of either the polymer or its char. The results of textile/fibre industry studies with FR treated upholstery fabrics and a critical review of the available published literature indicate that cigarette ignition propensity of cellulose fabrics is complicated and affected by many factors and that smoulder ignition resistance of these fabrics can be affected adversely by open flame ignition resistance treatments. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The fire safety of TV set enclosure materials,a survey of European statistics

The composition of enclosure materials used in many TV sets sold on the European market has changed significantly since the early 1990s. To determine the potential impact of this change on TV fire safety, a review of European and US TV set fire statistics has been carried out. TV set fires can have internal electrical causes due to faults not apparent at the time of manufacture, simple wear and tear, or a variety of external causes. Recent detailed statistics suggest that about one third of all TV fires are due to external ignition. Available data show that the significant drop in the rate of TV set fires experienced in Europe during the 1980s is not continuing today. In fact, the rate appears to be increasing in some countries, such as the UK and Sweden. The number of TV set fires in Europe is estimated as 100 fires per million TV sets per year due to internal ignition sources, at least an order of magnitude higher than in the USA where the fire safety classifications for TV set enclosure materials has been historically high. TV set fires have a dramatic impact on life and property. To avoid an increase in TV set fires, fire safety requirements should be increased, and public awareness of the importance of fire safety in TVs heightened. Copyright © 2000 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Highway vehicle fire data based on the experiences of US fire departments

In 2003–2007, US fire departments responded to an average of 267 600 highway vehicle fires per year. These fires caused an average of 441 civilian deaths, 1326 civilian injuries, and $1.0bn (in US dollars) in direct property damage annually. Highway vehicles include cars, trucks, and other vehicles designed for highway use; highway vehicle fires can occur anywhere, not just on a highway. While these fires and associated losses have been falling in recent years, highway vehicles fires accounted for 17% of reported US fires, 12% of US fire deaths, 8% of US civilian fire injuries, and 9% of the direct property damage from reported fires. Data from the US Fire Administration's National Fire Incident Reporting System and the National Fire Protection Association's fire department survey were used to provide details about the circumstances of highway vehicle fires. Mechanical or electrical failures caused roughly three‐quarters of the highway vehicle fires but only 11% of the deaths. Collisions and overturns were factors contributing to the ignition in only 3% of the fires, but fires resulting from these incidents caused 58% of these vehicle fire deaths. The rate of bus fires per billion miles driven was 3.5 times that for highway vehicle fires overall. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Quantifying the ignition propensity of cigarettes

Research funded under the Fire Safe Cigarette Act of 1990 (United States Public Law 101–352) has led to the development of two test methods for measuring the ignition propensity of cigarettes. The Mock-Up Ignition Test Method uses substrates physically similar to upholstered furniture and mattresses: a layer of fabric over padding. The measure of cigarette performance is ignition or non-ignition of the substrate. The Cigarette Extinction Test Method replaces the fabric/padding assembly with multiple layers of common filter paper. The measure of perfomance is full-length burning or self-extinguishment of the cigarette. Routine measurement of the relative ignition propensity of cigarettes is feasible using either of the two methods. Improved cigarette performance under both methods has been linked with reduced real-world ignition behavior; and it is reasonable to assume that this, in turn, implies a significant real-would benefit. Both methods have been subjected to interlaboratory study. The resulting reproducibilities were comparable to each other and comparable to those in other fire test methods currently being used to regulate materials which may be involved in unwanted fires. Using the two methods, some current commercial cigarettes are shown to have reduced ignition propensities relative to the current best-selling cigarettes.     

Revisiting flexible polyurethane foam flammability in furniture and bedding in the United States

The flammability of flexible polyurethane foam has been well studied to date, via smoldering and flaming ignition. Its contribution to fire loss in the United States has also been well documented, as the flammability of this material will contribute to large fire events when not protected from ignition and heat sources. Despite this known fire risk, fire protection approaches for polyurethane foam are being questioned in regards to fire protection performance, as well as proven and hypothesized concerns over health impacts before and after fire events. The flammability of flexible polyurethane foam in furniture and bedding is a clear and present danger that must be addressed, and this article discusses the current available technologies for fire protection, with pros and cons of these approaches. Known physical and chemical behavior of these foams in fires is discussed, as well as how this behavior contributes to large fire events. Finally, issues that still need further research and information to definitively address the polyurethane foam flammability in the United States is discussed.     

Experimental and numerical investigation of fire development in a real fire in a five‐storey apartment building

A fire in a five‐storey apartment building was investigated experimentally and numerically. The room of origin of the fire was a living room in the second floor and the fire was started by a candle on a television set. The fire spread externally over the building faccade and internally along the staircase and affected all the flats above leading to two fatalities. It is estimated that the fire was discovered minutes after ignition and the fire service was called very shortly after the detection and was at the scene 9 min after the call. By this time large sections of the façade were on fire already. The rapid fire that spread over the façade and the staircase necessitated detailed investigations. Compliance of building products with the building regulations was investigated. One conclusion of the investigations was that the person who caused the fire by leaving the candle on the TV set unattended should not be held responsible for the two fatalities in the upper floors. Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The importance of cyanide and organic nitriles in fire fatalities

A study of fire deaths in the Glasgow area has been in operation for 2½ years. Detailed pathological and toxicological examinations have been carried out on 127 fatalities, arising primarily in domestic fires. Cyanide and thiocyanate, the principal metabolite of cyanide in blood, were measured in blood samples from 100 fatalities and from groups of non-fatal fire casualties, firemen and normal and post-mortem controls. Cyanide concentrations in the blood of fatal and non-fatal casualties were elevated to statistically significant levels compared to controls and 6% of fatalities had cyanide levels above 100 μmol 1^?1 blood. No evidence was obtained for the operation of additive or synergistic effects in fire deaths between cyanide, carbon monoxide and ethyl alcohol. Thiocyanate was of value as an index of metabolized cyanide in non-fatal subject groups but not in fatalities. Organic volatiles in blood from fire victims were analysed with a gas chromatograph mass spectrometer computer system and for the first time the presence of toxic nitriles other than cyanide has been demonstrated.     

Ignitability Analysis of Siding Materials Using Modified Protocol for Lift Apparatus

This paper reports on the ignitability of common siding materials that could be exposed to wildland fires. When exposed to brands or fires, structures will experience piloted ignition, which is requisite for sustained ignition involving burn-through and surface flame spread in various directions. In this study, the Lateral Ignition and Flame Spread Test (LIFT) apparatus (ASTM E1321 and E1317) was used to test various siding materials (plywoods, softwoods, and vinyl), some of which were painted, humidified, or sawed. A recently developed protocol provided useful, accurate values of the following thermophysical properties: surface emissivity, surface ignition temperature, thermal conductivity, and thermal diffusivity. Full consistency was achieved with independent literature values of these properties and can be used directly in the database of fire growth models.     

Experimental study on tire fire penetration into a motorcoach passenger compartment

Two full‐scale fire experiments were conducted to determine the mode of penetration of a tire fire into the passenger compartment of a motorcoach. A special burner was designed to imitate the frictional heating of hub and wheel metal caused by failed axle bearings, locked brakes, or dragged blown tires. For the first experiment, heating to obtain tire ignition was initiated on the exterior of the passenger side tag axle wheel and for the second, on the exterior of the passenger side drive axle wheel. Measurements of interior and exterior temperatures, interior heat flux, and heat release rate were performed. Standard and infrared videos and still photographs were recorded. Both experiments showed that the tire fires ignited the plastic fender and glass‐reinforced plastic exterior side panel (below the windows) upon which the fires spread quickly and penetrated the passenger compartment by breaking the windows. Measurements showed that other potential fire penetration routes (flooring and lavatory) lagged far behind the windows in heating and degradation. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.