关于风冷和水冷冷水机组的耗电量问题

认为比较两者的耗电量应明确机组装机容量与耗电量的区别及负荷分布机组效率和耗电量的影响。经比较得出，风冷机组耗电并不比水冷机组高多少，且其总运行费用可能还略低于后者。     

Evaluation of existing cooling systems for reducing cooling power consumption

This work was designed to estimate the cooling load power consumption during the summer in the hot and humid areas of Iran. The actual electrical energy consumption for cooling systems of some typical buildings with various applications (3 residential home buildings, 2 industrial plant buildings, a trade center with 38 shops, 3 public sectors and a city hospital) in a hot and humid region in South of Iran was recorded during the peak load period of the year (July–August). The records were used for estimating the total power consumption of the cooling systems in this region. According to this estimation, which was confirmed by the regional electrical power distribution office, the cooling systems power consumption in this region accounted for more than 60% of the total power consumption during the peak load period of the year.     

Application of optimization techniques on lumped HVAC models for energy conservation

Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems comprise nearly one third of annual household energy consumption in the United States. HVAC energy use can be reduced by applying controls. This study applies a novel control method on a system with arbitrary steady-state and transient load distributions. The new method uses multi-dimensional interpolation between optimized control configurations for various steady-state load distributions. Demonstration of the new method on a two-room HVAC system predicts power savings for an arbitrary steady load that is nearly equivalent to that using a Variable-Air-Volume (VAV) with chiller modulation. However, the new method provides better energy savings for arbitrary transient loads: 19% energy savings over an uncontrolled system compared to energy savings of 6% for a VAV with chiller modulation. The average transient temperature deviation from setpoint using the new method is slightly better than that using VAV with chiller modulation.     

Application of the cumulative exergy approach to different air conditioning systems

The cumulative exergy approach is applied to evaluate two cases with different air conditioning systems. The first case includes three air conditioning systems, one is the gas direct fired air conditioning system, and the other two have air cooled heat-pump chiller and water chiller, respectively; the second case consists of four air conditioning systems, one is the gas direct fired air conditioning system, and the others have centrifugal water chiller, screw water chiller, air cooled water chiller, respectively. The results of the first case show that the air conditioning system with the air cooled heat-pump chiller maybe inferior to that with the water chiller, as the cumulative exergy efficiency of the former is 11.28%, which is less than that of the latter (11.92%). The second case shows that the gas direct fired air conditioning system, whose cumulative exergy efficiency is 14.86%, is better than the system with the air cooled water chiller, whose cumulative exergy efficiency is only 11.56%. The results are different from those of the exergy analysis, indicating that cumulative exergy analysis is an effective method to quantitatively evaluate different air conditioning systems according to resource utilization.     

小型复合式热泵冷(热)水机组的开发关于户式中央空调机组的改进

认为现行户式中央空调机组的装机功率偏大，夏季进行的能耗过高，建议探讨开发复合式冷却方式，以便该机组达到冬、夏季节能运行的最佳效果。     

Reducing energy peak consumption with passive climate control methods

In recent years, European electrical consumption in buildings is experiencing a marked increase, rising to values above design conditions. Consequently, power cuts occur in different periods, such as during the early morning hours in winter and the last hours of occupation in summer. To solve this problem, passive methods could help to reduce energy peaks. Specifically, internal wall coverings were applied to define the moisture-buffering capacity of permeable coverings in indoor air. These permeable coverings improved the indoor partial vapour pressure and, as a result, the ambience acceptability and local thermal comfort, despite the use of an air barrier and less permeable coverings, when compared with other authors. The daily periods in which internal coverings work are clearly defined, and give us an understanding of the peak energy consumption at different times. In particular, peak reductions of 20% and 4% in the energy consumption for indoor air conditioning, respectively during the summer and winter seasons, were obtained with permeable coverings. Permeable coverings have been demonstrated to be an effective solution as a passive control method for indoor air conditions, especially in the summer season and, consequently, are an energy saving technique.     

Saving energy in the make-up air unit (MAU) for semiconductor clean rooms in subtropical areas

The energy requirements to cool, dehumidify, preheat and/or humidify outdoor air are significant in the make-up air unit (MAU) of clean room air-conditioning systems, and can represent 30% to 65% of the total thermal energy required to maintain a clean room environment. Because of these high-energy requirements, cost-effective means to reduce energy costs can influence unit production costs. Reducing or displacing mechanical cooling or electrical heating requirements can achieve the greatest opportunity for significant energy savings. This paper, therefore, aims to improve the energy performance of the MAU system by properly arranging compositions of components of a typical MAU applied in a semiconductor clean room. Explicitly, we investigated the influence of various factors including the fan location (draft-through type vs. push-through type), chilled water system (single-chilled water temperature system vs. two chilled water temperature system) and reheating scheme (electrical heating vs. hot water provided by heat recovery chiller). The result shows that the draw-through type accompanied by two chilled water temperature system with heat recovery function exhibits the lowest electrical power consumption.     

北京某商业建筑温湿度独立控制空调系统的全年能耗分析

以北京某一商业建筑为模拟对象,对其空调冷负荷进行模拟,并在此基础上计算普通空调系统和温湿度独立控制空调系统的能耗.经过对能耗的比较和分析表明,温湿度独立控制空调系统的能耗比普通空调系统的能耗降低了16.4%,冷水机组全年平均性能系数提高了13%.结果表明温湿度独立控制空调系统具有很好的应用前景.     

冰蓄冷辐射供冷系统的综合评价

日本办公建筑的空调耗电占其总耗电的50％以上，尤其在夏季是加剧电力需求高峰的主要因素。为了平衡负荷，电力生产部门和政府都在致力提倡蓄热空调系统。介绍了东京一座典型办公楼的与冰蓄冷系统结合的辐射供冷系统，包括其均衡负荷的作用，节能的潜力，施工及运行费用的估算等。     

The impact of daylighting on peak electrical demand

A complete analysis of the cost-effectiveness of daylighting strategies should include the impact of daylighting on peak electrical demand as well as on energy consumption. We utilized an hour-by-hour building energy analysis program to study the thermal and daylighting impacts of fenestration on peak demand. Fenestration properties and lighting system characteristics were varied parametrically for office buildings in Madison WI and Lake Charles LA. Peak electrical demand was disaggregated by component and by zone, monthly patterns of peak demand were examined, and impacts of fenestration performance on chiller size were studied.The results suggest that for daylighted office buildings, the peak electrical demand results from a complex trade-off between cooling load due to fenestration parameters, lighting load reductions due to glazing and lighting system characteristics. Lowest peak demands generally occur with small to moderate size apertures. With daylighting, peak electrical demand is reduced by 10 to 20% for the building configuration studied (37% perimeter zone, 63% core zone). This work indicates that solar gain through fenestration must be effectively controlled in order to realize the potential of daylighting to significantly reduce peak electrical demand.     

Effects of utilizing seawater as a cooling source system in a commercial complex

This paper treats energy and cost performance of a cooling source system with indirect seawater utilization for air conditioning in a commercial complex. Seawater utilization has merits as a cooling source, because seawater temperature is lower than outdoor air in summer and it is cost effective because there is no water monetary cost. Actual operating data has been measured for about 2 years and the chiller and system co-efficient of performance (COP) have indicated about 4.77 and 2.93, respectively, even in summer season and the mean efficiency of the thermal storage system was about 89.9% taking into account heat loss of pumps. In addition, we have constructed simulation models for cooling tower systems, air cooling chiller systems and direct seawater utilization systems then compared them to this system. The electric power consumption of the indirect seawater utilization system was almost the same as the other systems except the air cooling chiller system, because using lower seawater temperature made the chiller efficiency higher. In conclusion, our results showed the indirect seawater utilization system was able to improve the system COP compared to air cooling chiller system, and cancel water consumption compared with the cooling tower system, and cut down an initial and maintenance costs compared with the direct seawater utilization system.     

江阴市某商业综合楼太阳能空调热水系统设计

给出了江阴市某商业综合楼太阳能吸收式空调的设计及计算方法,详细地阐述了该吸收式空调系统的运行原理、负荷计算、空气处理过程、太阳能集热器的设计计算和布置方式、空调系统冷热源的选择、冷水机组的选型及依据等,并分析了连续阴雨天生活热水的保障问题以及储热、储冷水箱选择的依据,阐明了该系统运行的可行性,并通过满负荷计算的方法比较了改造前传统空调系统的耗电量与改造后太阳能吸收式空调系统的耗电量,得出太阳能吸收式空调节能约42%,太阳能吸收式空调具有一定的发展前景。     

A general methodology for optimal load management with distributed renewable energy generation and storage in residential housing

In the US, buildings represent around 40% of the primary energy consumption and 74% of the electrical energy consumption [U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). 2012. 2011 Buildings Energy Data Book. Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy]. Incentives to promote the installation of on-site renewable energy sources have emerged in different states, including net metering programmes. The fast spread of such distributed power generation represents additional challenges for the management of the electricity grid and has led to increased interest in smart control of building loads and demand response programmes. This paper presents a general methodology for assessing opportunities associated with optimal load management in response to evolving utility incentives for residential buildings that employ renewable energy sources and energy storage. An optimal control problem is formulated for manipulating thermostatically controlled domestic loads and energy storage in response to the availability of renewable energy generation and utility net metering incentives. The methodology is demonstrated for a typical American house built in the 1990s and equipped with a single-speed air-to-air heat pump, an electric water heater and photovoltaic (PV) collectors. The additional potential associated with utilizing electrical batteries is also considered. Load matching performance for on-site renewable energy generation is characterized in terms of percentage of the electricity production consumed on-site and the proportion of the demand covered. For the purpose of assessing potential, simulations were performed assuming perfect predictions of the electrical load profiles. The method also allows determination of the optimal size of PV systems for a given net metering programme. Results of the case study showed significant benefits associated with control optimization including an increase of load matching between 3% and 28%, with the improvement dependent on the net metering tariff and available storage capacity. The estimated cost savings for the consumer ranged from 6.4% to 27.5% compared to no optimization with a unitary buy-back ratio, depending on the available storage capacity. Related reduction in CO₂ emissions were between 11% and 46%. Optimal load management of the home thermal systems allowed an increase in the optimal size of the PV system in the range of 13–21%.     

Guidelines for improved performance of ice storage systems

This paper describes simulation-based results of an investigation of a commercial cooling plant with an ice storage system. Various ice storage systems, chiller compressors, and building types were analyzed under four different control strategies. Optimal control as the strategy that minimizes the total operating cost (demand and energy charges) served as a benchmark to assess the relative performance of three conventional controls (chiller-priority, constant-proportion, and storage-priority control) and to determine aspects in need of improvement in order to apply these conventional controls better and to enhance the cost saving potential of ice storage systems.Independent of the non-cooling electrical load profile, it was found that good efficiency of the cooling plant in the icemaking mode and rate structures with strong load-shifting incentives are prerequisites for making cool storage successful. Chillers with poor performance at subfreezing evaporator temperatures require significant on- to off-peak differentials in the energy and demand rates to yield substantial savings. The relative performance benefit of optimal control over conventional controls increases when rate-based load-shifting incentives are weak. With cooling-related electrical loads being large compared to non-cooling loads, all conventional controls improve their performance when slowly recharging during off-peak periods to contain off-peak demand. On-peak demand reduction of storage-priority is near-optimal for many cases. Guidelines are presented to improve the load-shifting performance of chiller-priority and constant-proportion control.     

Using intelligent data analysis to detect abnormal energy consumption in buildings

This paper describes a novel method for detecting abnormal energy consumption in buildings based on daily readings of energy consumption and peak energy consumption. The method uses outlier detection to determine if the energy consumption for a particular day is significantly different than previous energy consumption. For buildings with abnormal energy consumption, the amount of variation from normal is determined using robust estimates of the mean and standard deviation. This new data analysis method will reduce operating costs by detecting problems that previously would have gone unnoticed. Also, operators should save time by not having to manually detect faults or diagnose false alarms. The new data analysis method has successfully detected high-energy consumption in many buildings. This paper presents field test results for buildings that had the following problems: (1) chiller failure and a poor control strategy, (2) poor design of ventilating and air-conditioning equipment, and (3) improper operation of equipment following a change in the electrical panel.     

Modelling of enhanced passive and conventional cooling systems

This study modelled a recently completed typical steel-framed speculative office development in the UK. It investigated the comparative performance of the building for various servicing regimes. These included natural and mechanical ventilation, two types of active fabric energy storage (FES) system (AirDeck and AirCore), air-conditioning (a conventional all-air system and chilled ceiling with mechanical ventilation), and mixed-mode solutions combining some of the above approaches. The assessment covered both summer and winter (heating) performance. The main objective was to evaluate overall performance of these systems in terms of thermal comfort and energy use and to compare the findings with more conventional servicing options for the same building. The study demonstrates that active FES can enhance thermal comfort while reducing energy use and emissions. In comparison with conventionally and naturally ventilated systems, the studied FES systems reduced temperature excess hours and peak temperatures, supplied cooler air as a result of overnight cooling, and reduced chiller consumption and boiler ratings as well as emissions. The annual operating costs of these active FES systems increase energy costs by only 13% over that of the naturally ventilated option. The mixed-mode solutions reduce them by over 35% when compared with all-mechanically cooled alternatives.     

Modelling of enhanced passive and conventional cooling systems

This study modelled a recently completed typical steel-framed speculative office development in the UK. It investigated the comparative performance of the building for various servicing regimes. These included natural and mechanical ventilation, two types of active fabric energy storage (FES) system (AirDeck and AirCore), air-conditioning (a conventional all-air system and chilled ceiling with mechanical ventilation), and mixed-mode solutions combining some of the above approaches. The assessment covered both summer and winter (heating) performance. The main objective was to evaluate overall performance of these systems in terms of thermal comfort and energy use and to compare the findings with more conventional servicing options for the same building. The study demonstrates that active FES can enhance thermal comfort while reducing energy use and emissions. In comparison with conventionally and naturally ventilated systems, the studied FES systems reduced temperature excess hours and peak temperatures, supplied cooler air as a result of overnight cooling, and reduced chiller consumption and boiler ratings as well as emissions. The annual operating costs of these active FES systems increase energy costs by only 13% over that of the naturally ventilated option. The mixed-mode solutions reduce them by over 35% when compared with all-mechanically cooled alternatives.     

某大型空调系统能耗分析

能源问题是决定我国能否可持续发展的关键因素之一。对某大型空调系统能耗进行了测试和分析，表明冷机实际COP低于其额定COP，并且空调箱能耗占到30％-50％；另外，对系统的负荷分析表明，造成系统的供需比下降的主要原因是该系统设计本身所造成。因此，对空调系统优化运行是节能改造必不可少的一个环节；同时，如何优化空调系统各级的设定参数以及系统的划分，将会从根本上提高系统冷负荷的供需比，从而大大减少系统能耗，可为大型空调系统的运行人员、设计人员提供参考。     

集中式空调系统能耗评价体系的研究

结合武汉地区的工程，给出了典型建筑当量满负荷运行时间，讨论了集中空调系统全年能耗计算方法和能耗评价体系，认为周边全年热负荷系数PAL、空调能耗因数CECAC是适合评价我国集中空调系统设计是否合理的有效能耗评价指标，但CECAC对基于计算负荷偏大所匹配的空调设备没有约束边界条件，建议尽快研究适合我国的PAL，CECAC基准。     

Low-energy design for air-cooled chiller plants in air-conditioned buildings

Chillers are widely used for cooling buildings in the subtropical regions at the expense of considerable energy. This paper discusses how the number and size of air-cooled chillers in a chiller plant should be designed to improve their energy performance. Using an experimentally verified chiller model, four design options were studied for a chiller plant handling the cooling load profile of an office building. Using chillers of different sizes is desirable to increase the number of steps of total cooling capacity. This enables the chillers to operate frequently at or near full load to save chiller power. Pumping energy can also be saved because of the improved control of chilled water flow whereby the chilled water supplied by the staged chillers can match with that required by air side equipment for most of the operating time. It is estimated that the annual electricity consumption of chiller plants could drop by 9.4% with the use of unequally sized chillers. The findings of this research will offer guidance on how to select chillers of different sizes for a low-energy chiller plant.