Facial expression recognition based on two-dimensional discriminant locality preserving projections

In this paper, a novel method called two-dimensional discriminant locality preserving projections (2D-DLPP) is proposed. By introducing between-class scatter constraint and label information into two-dimensional locality preserving projections (2D-LPP) algorithm, 2D-DLPP successfully finds the subspace which can best discriminate different pattern classes. So the subspace obtained by 2D-DLPP has more discriminant power than 2D-LPP, and is more suitable for recognition tasks. The proposed method was applied to facial expression recognition tasks on JAFFE and Cohn-Kanade database and compared with other three widely used two-dimensional methods: 2D-PCA, 2D-LDA and 2D-LPP. The high recognition rates show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.     

Comment on “Facial expression recognition based on two-dimensional discriminant locality preserving projections” [Neurocomputing 71 (2008) 1730-1734]

In this note, we show that the mathematical formulation of the two-dimensional discriminant locality preserving projections (2D-DLPP) proposed in the paper [R. Zhi, Q. Ruan, Facial expression recognition based on two-dimensional discriminant locality preserving projections, Neurocomputing 71 (2008) 1730–1734] is not very sound. The rigorous version is thus given. We also point out that 2D-DLPP can be viewed from the perspective of the discriminant locality preserving projections (DLPP).     

Sparse two-dimensional local discriminant projections for feature extraction

Two-dimensional local graph embedding discriminant analysis (2DLGEDA) and two-dimensional discriminant locality preserving projections (2DDLPP) were recently proposed to directly extract features form 2D face matrices to improve the performance of two-dimensional locality preserving projections (2DLPP). But all of them require a high computational cost and the learned transform matrices lack intuitive and semantic interpretations. In this paper, we propose a novel method called sparse two-dimensional locality discriminant projections (S2DLDP), which is a sparse extension of graph-based image feature extraction method. S2DLDP combines the spectral analysis and L₁-norm regression using the Elastic Net to learn the sparse projections. Differing from the existing 2D methods such as 2DLPP, 2DDLP and 2DLGEDA, S2DLDP can learn the sparse 2D face profile subspaces (also called sparsefaces), which give an intuitive, semantic and interpretable feature subspace for face representation. We point out that using S2DLDP for face feature extraction is, in essence, to project the 2D face images on the semantic face profile subspaces, on which face recognition is also performed. Experiments on Yale, ORL and AR face databases show the efficiency and effectiveness of S2DLDP.     

基于无参数二维判别局部保持投影算法的人脸识别

通过向二维局部保持投影（2D-LPP）算法中引入类间约束和类标识信息,得到二维判别局部保持投影（2D-DLPP）算法,使它拥有更多的判别信息。但它却面临复杂的参数选择问题,这使得它在解决识别问题时受到限制。为解决此问题,构造无参数的相似矩阵,提出无参数的二维判别局部投影（无参数2D-DLPP）算法。在Yale和ORL人脸库上的仿真实验结果表明,该算法与二维判别局部保持投影（2D-DLPP）、二维局部保持投影法（2D-LPP）和二维线性判别分析法（2D-LDA）相比能够取得更高的识别率。     

A Direct Locality Preserving Projections (DLPP) Algorithm for Image Recognition

This paper proposes a novel locality preserving projections (LPP) algorithm for image recognition, namely, the direct locality preserving projections (DLPP), which directly optimizes locality preserving criterion on high-dimensional raw images data via simultaneous diagonalization, without any dimensionality reduction preprocessing. Our algorithm is a direct and complete implementation of LPP. Experimental results on the PolyU palmprint database and ORL face database show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.     

正则化保局鉴别分析方法

提出一种正则化保局鉴别分析方法(RLPDA)并将其应用于人脸识别。受样本有限制约和大量噪声干扰,保局类内散布矩阵的零特征值及小特征值估计不准确,进而影响鉴别保局投影算法的性能。结合倒数谱模型对保局类内散布矩阵的特征值进行正则化,并利用正则化后的特征值对相应的特征空间加权,使人脸空间被保留,噪声空间被削弱,而零空间则被加强。通过分析鉴别信息在数据空间的分布可发现,RLPDA方法有效利用整个特征空间的鉴别信息,有利于提高算法的识别精度,同时从原理上回避小样本问题。在FERET和UMIST人脸数据库上的识别结果表明,RLPDA是一种有效的人脸特征提取方法。     

完备鉴别保局投影人脸识别算法

为了充分利用保局总体散布主元空间内的鉴别信息进行人脸识别,提出了一种完备鉴别保局投影(complete discriminant locality preserving projections,简称CDLPP)人脸识别算法.鉴于Fisher鉴别分析和保局投影已经被广泛的应用于人脸识别,完备鉴别保局投影(locality preserving projections,简称LPP)算法将这两者结合起来,分析了保局类内散布、类间散布和总体散布的主元空间和零空间内包含的鉴别信息.该算法采用奇异值分解(singular value decomposition,简称SVD),去除了不含任何鉴别信息的保局总体散布的零空间;分别在保局类内散布的主元空间和零空间提取规则鉴别特征和不规则鉴别特征;用串联的方式在特征层融合规则鉴别特征和不规则鉴别特征形成完备的鉴别特征进行人脸识别.在ORL库、FERET子库和PIE子库上的大量识别实验充分表明了完备鉴别保局投影算法的性能优于线性鉴别分析、保局投影和鉴别保局投影等现有的子空间人脸识别算法,验证了算法的有 效性.     

Face recognition using discriminative locality preserving vectors

We proposed an effective face recognition method based on the discriminative locality preserving vectors method (DLPV). Using the analysis of eigenspectrum modeling of locality preserving projections, we selected the reliable face variation subspace of LPP to construct the locality preserving vectors to characterize the data set. The discriminative locality preserving vectors (DLPV) method is based on the discriminant analysis on the locality preserving vectors. Furthermore, the theoretical analysis showed that the DLPV is viewed as a generalized discriminative common vector, null space linear discriminant analysis and null space discriminant locality preserving projections, which gave the intuitive motivation of our method. Extensive experimental results obtained on four well-known face databases (ORL, Yale, Extended Yale B and CMU PIE) demonstrated the effectiveness of the proposed DLPV method.     

基于掌纹、人脸在特征层融合的身份识别算法

首先利用小波变换增强掌纹、人脸图像;然后利用一种新的子空间分析方法——对角离散余弦变换和二维主元判别分析(Diagonal,Discrete Cosine Transform and Two-Dimensional Principle Component Analysis,Dia-DCT+2DPCA)相结合的算法提出了一种掌纹、人脸特征融合的识别方法;最后运用最小距离分类器进行识别。实验结果表明,该文提出的掌纹、人脸特征融合方法实现了特征层融合,有效地提高了身份识别的正确识别率。     

Two-dimensional discriminant locality preserving projections (2DDLPP) and its application to feature extraction via fuzzy set

This paper presents a new method for image feature extraction, namely, the fuzzy 2D discriminant locality preserving projections (F2DDLPP) based on the 2D discriminant locality preserving projections (2DDLPP) and fuzzy set theory. Firstly, we calculate the membership degree matrix by fuzzy k-nearest neighbor (FKNN), then we incorporate the membership degree matrix into the definition of the intra-class scatter matrix and inter-class scatter matrix, respectively. Secondly, we can get the fuzzy intra-class scatter matrix and fuzzy inter-class scatter matrix, respectively. The FKNN is implemented to achieve the distribution information of original samples, and this information is utilized to redefine corresponding scatter matrices. So, F2DDLPP can extract discriminative features from overlapping (outlier) samples which is different to the conventional 2DDLPP. Finally, Experiments on the Yale, ORL face databases, USPS database and PolyU palmprint database are demonstrated to verify the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.     

一种基于2DLPP和2DLDA的人脸识别方法研究

局部保持投影（locality preserving projection,LPP）和线性鉴别分析（linear discrimin antanalysis,LDA）是两种有效的一维特征提取方法,广泛应用于人脸识别领域。但采用一维特征提取方法时会存在列向量化时样本的结构信息被破坏和样本在提取特征时必须对协方差矩阵进行特征分解,对于高维小样本的问题很容易出现协方差矩阵奇异的问题。文中提出将二维局部保持投影（2DLPP）和二维线性鉴别分析（2DLDA）这两种方法在特征层进行融合并应用在人脸识别。基于人脸库AR上的实验表明,该方法比传统的IJPP和LDA识别性能更高,因此可作为一种新的人脸识别方法。     

面向酉子空间的二维判别保局投影的人脸识别*

保局投影算法（LPP）在人脸识别中具有较好的识别性能,但它是一种非监督学习,并且在具体实现时需要把图像转换为向量,破坏了图像的像素结构,这显然不利于模式识别。针对这些问题,提出基于酉子空间的二维判别保局算法,不仅在判别保局算法的基础上增加了类别信息,而且直接在灰度矩阵上进行水平和垂直方向上的二维保局投影。该方法构造酉空间上的复向量后再运用线性判别分析提取特征。在ORL、Yale和XJTU人脸库中验证了算法的正确性和有效性,其识别率比传统的2DLDA和2DLPP等方法提高4～5个百分点。     

Face recognition using laplacianfaces

We propose an appearance-based face recognition method called the Laplacianface approach. By using locality preserving projections (LPP), the face images are mapped into a face subspace for analysis. Different from principal component analysis (PCA) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) which effectively see only the Euclidean structure of face space, LPP finds an embedding that preserves local information, and obtains a face subspace that best detects the essential face manifold structure. The Laplacianfaces are the optimal linear approximations to the eigenfunctions of the Laplace Beltrami operator on the face manifold. In this way, the unwanted variations resulting from changes in lighting, facial expression, and pose may be eliminated or reduced. Theoretical analysis shows that PCA, LDA, and LPP can be obtained from different graph models. We compare the proposed Laplacianface approach with Eigenface and Fisherface methods on three different face data sets. Experimental results suggest that the proposed Laplacianface approach provides a better representation and achieves lower error rates in face recognition.     

局部非参数子空间分析在人脸识别中的应用

提出了一种局部非参数子空间分析算法（Local Nonparametric Subspace Analysis,LNSA）,将其应用在人脸识别中。LNSA算法结合了非参数子空间算法（Nonparametric Subspace Analysis,NSA）与局部保留投影算法（Locality Preserving Projection,LPP）。它利用LPP算法中的相似度矩阵重构NSA的类内散度矩阵,使得在最大化类间散度矩阵的同时保留了类的局部结构。在ORL人脸库和XM2VTS人脸库上作了实验并证明LNSA方法要优于其他方法。     

一种用于特征提取的保局判别分析算法

针对保局投影(LPP)为无监督算法的局限,提出了一种新的监督版的LPP,即保局判别分析(LPDA)算法。LPDA吸收了流形学习算法与最大边界准则(MMC)的共同特点,可以将高维的人脸数据投影到低维子空间,具有能处理新样本与无小样本问题的优点。与现有的多种经典相关方法相比,从Yale, UMIST及MIT 3个人脸数据库的实验结果表明,提出的LPDA算法在降维的同时提取了用于人脸识别的更有效的特征,人脸图像识别性能较好,具有较强的判别分析能力。     

Two-dimensional locality preserving projections (2DLPP) with its application to palmprint recognition

This paper proposes a novel algorithm for image feature extraction, namely, the two-dimensional locality preserving projections (2DLPP), which directly extracts the proper features from image matrices based on locality preserving criterion. Experimental results on the PolyU palmprint database show the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm.     

Orthogonal Complete Discriminant Locality Preserving Projections for Face Recognition

In this paper, we propose a novel orthogonal complete discriminant locality preserving projections for facial feature extraction and recognition (OCDLPP). All training samples are projected into the range of a so-called locality preserving total scatterto reduce dimensionality without loss of discriminative information. The transformation matrix of OCDLPP is orthogonal and is found simultaneously using QR decomposition technique. Moreover, a feasible and effective procedure is proposed to alleviate the computational burden of high dimensional matrix for typical face image data. Experiments results on the ORL, Yale, FERET and PIE face databases show the effectiveness of the proposed OCDLPP.     

Face recognition using Elasticfaces

Though principle component analysis (PCA) and locality preserving projections (LPPs) are two of the most popular linear methods for face recognition, PCA can only see the Euclidean structure of the training set and LPP preserves the nonlinear submanifold structure hidden in the training set. In this paper, we propose the elastic preserving projections (EPPs) which by incorporating the merits of the local geometry and the global information of the training set. EPP outputs a sample subspace which simultaneously preserves the local geometrical structure and exploits the global information of the training set. Different from some other linear dimensionality reduction methods, EPP can be deemed as learning both the coordinates and the affinities between sample points. Furthermore, the effectiveness of our proposed algorithm is analyzed theoretically and confirmed by some experiments on several well-known face databases. The obtained results indicate that EPP significantly outperforms its other rival algorithms.     

Face recognition using discriminant locality preserving projections based on maximum margin criterion

In this paper, we propose a new discriminant locality preserving projections based on maximum margin criterion (DLPP/MMC). DLPP/MMC seeks to maximize the difference, rather than the ratio, between the locality preserving between-class scatter and locality preserving within-class scatter. DLPP/MMC is theoretically elegant and can derive its discriminant vectors from both the range of the locality preserving between-class scatter and the range space of locality preserving within-class scatter. DLPP/MMC can also derive its discriminant vectors from the null space of locality preserving within-class scatter when the parameter of DLPP/MMC approaches +∞. Experiments on the ORL, Yale, FERET, and PIE face databases show the effectiveness of the proposed DLPP/MMC.     

Two-dimensional bilinear preserving projections for image feature extraction and classification

Two-dimensional locality preserving projections (2DLPP) was recently proposed to extract features directly from image matrices based on locality preserving criterion. A significant drawback of 2DLPP is that it only works on one direction (left or right) to reduce the dimensionality of the image matrices and thus too many coefficients are needed for image representation in low-dimensional subspace. In this paper, we propose a novel method called two-dimensional bilinear preserving projections (2DBPP) for image feature extraction. We generalized the image-based (2D-based) feature extraction techniques into bilinear cases, in which 2DLPP is a special case of our proposed method. In order to obtain the bilinear projections, we proposed an iteration method by solving the corresponding generalized eigen-equations. Moreover, analyses show that 2DBPP has stronger locality preserving abilities than 2DLPP. By using the label information and defining different local neighborhood graphs, the proposed framework is further extended to supervised case. Experiments on three databases show that 2DBPP and its supervised extension are superior to some other image-based state-of-the-art techniques.