Numerical Simulation Study of Temperature Gradient Transient Liquid Phase Bonding with Concentration-Dependent Diffusivity

A new numerical model is developed to study the kinetics of temperature gradient transient liquid phase (TG-TLP) bonding under concentration-dependent diffusivity by using a first-order implicit–explicit finite-difference numerical method and Landau coordinate transformation with adaptable spatial discretization. The model is validated with experimental data reported in the literature. The results of computational analysis by the new model show that the presence of solute concentration gradient in the liquid is the major factor that enables shorter solidification completion time in TG-TLP bonding compared to the conventional transient liquid phase bonding (C-TLP bonding). In contrast to the common assumption that solid-state diffusion can be ignored during the modeling of TG-TLP bonding, this work shows that solid-state diffusion plays a significant role, not only in controlling the transition in solidification behavior from bidirectional to unidirectional, but also affects the kinetics of the bonding process. Moreover, it is found that the anomalous increase in solidification completion time with increase in temperature that occurs during C-TLP bonding can be avoided by TG-TLP bonding. This is possible if the solute concentration gradient in the liquid is sufficiently high to enable adequate solidification kinetics to overcome increased volume of liquid that accompanies increase in bonding temperature.

     

Excess Carbon Enrichment in Austenite During Intercritical Annealing

Carbon enrichment in the austenite transformed from martensite during intercritical annealing was measured by electron probe microanalyzer and three-dimensional atom probe microscopy in Fe-2Mn-0.3C and Fe-0.35C alloys. At early stages of the transformation, negligible Mn partitioning occurs, and carbon content in austenite is higher than orthoequilibrium and paraequilibrium predictions. This is presumably attributed to finite intrinsic interface mobility and/or solute drag effect. The resultant free energy dissipation at interface was estimated.     

低碳钢热变形奥氏体的再结晶行为

对热变形奥氏体的再结晶动力学和微观组织演变进行了模拟计算,对晶粒尺寸的模拟值和实测值作了比较,分析了化学成分对动态再结晶率的影响以及残余应变与变形温度的关系.结果表明:在温度较高、应变速率较低的条件下容易发生动态再结晶,随着变形温度的降低,发生动态再结晶的几率减小,而静态再结晶在前几道次进行得比较充分,随后进行得不充分,增加碳和锰的含量可以促进动态再结晶的发生,残余应变随变形温度的降低而增大,晶粒尺寸的模拟值和实测值吻合较好,表明所选用的模型有一定的参考价值.     

Ultrafine Grained Austenite in a Low Carbon Vanadium Microalloyed Steel

 Ultrafine austenite grains with average size of 2 μm were successfully obtained by combining thermo-mechanical control process followed by reheating in a vanadium microalloyed steel. The mixed microstructure transformed from pancaked austenite formed during controlled rolling has a higher density of high angle boundaries, compared to that transformed from equiaxial austenite. It contributes to increasing nucleation density of austenite grain during the reheating process. A certain volume fraction of undissolved nano-sized (Ti,V)C particles, which are formed during the controlled rolling process and/or the reheating process, effectively inhibit austenite grain growth and consequently refine austenite grain size significantly. The critical grain size of austenite calculated by Gladman model agrees well with the experimental result.     

Retained Austenite and Tempered Martensite Embrittlement in Medium Carbon Steels

Electron microscopy, diffraction and microanalysis, X-ray diffraction, and auger spectroscopy have been used to study quenched and quenched and tempered 0.3 pct carbon low alloy steels. Some in situ fracture studies were also carried out in a high voltage electron microscope. Tempered martensite embrittlement (TME) is shown to arise primarily as a microstructural constraint associated with decomposition of interlath retained austenite into M₃C films upon tempering in the range of 250 °C to 400 °C. In addition, intralath Widmanstätten Fe₃C forms from epsilon carbide. The fracture is transgranular with respect to prior austenite. The situation is analogous to that in upper bainite. This TME failure is different from temper embrittlement (TE) which occurs at higher tempering temperatures (approximately 500 °C), and is not a microstructural effect but rather due to impurity segregation (principally sulfur in the present work) to prior austenite grain boundaries leading to intergranular fracture along those boundaries. Both failures can occur in the same steels, depending on the tempering conditions.     

Austenite Recrystallization and Controlled Rolling of Low Carbon Steels

The dynamic recrystallization and static recrystallization in a low carbon steel were investigated through single-pass and double-pass experiments. The results indicate that as the deformation temperature increases and the strain rate decreases, the shape of the stress-strain curve is changed from dynamic recovery shape to dynamic recrystallization shape. The austenite could not recrystallize within a few seconds after deformation at temperature below 900 ℃. According to the change in microstructure during deformation, the controlled rolling of low carbon steel can be divided into four stages： dynamic recrystallization, dynamic recovery, strain-induced ferrite transformation, and rolling in two-phase region. According to the microstructure after deformation, the controlled rolling of low carbon steel can be divided into five regions： non-recrystallized austenite, partly-recrystallized austenite, fully-recrystallized austenite, austenite to ferrite transformation, and dual phase.     

球墨铸铁低碳奥氏体化和部分奥氏体化热处理研究

研究了球墨铸铁低碳奥氏体化和部分奥氏体化热处理工艺及其提高球墨铸铁综合机械性能的效果。     

低碳钢Q235形变奥氏体的静态再结晶

在Thermecmastor-Z热模拟试验机上进行了低碳钢Q235的双道次压缩试验,确定了该钢静态再结晶的动力学方程.结果表明,在大变形量下,即使变形温度较低(850～800℃),应变速率较高时,静态再结晶的速度仍然很快.通过静态再结晶可以将奥氏体晶粒尺寸细化至10～20μm.     

Mechanism of Austenite Evolution During Deformation of Ultra-High Carbon Steel

The mechanism of transformation of austenite to cementite and pearlite during the deformation of ultra-high carbon steel was discussed. The results indicate that the pearlite and cementite can be induced by deformation between Acm to Arcm The transformation during deformation is still considered as a diffusion-controlled process. With the increase of time and reduction, the pearlite fraction increased. At the beginning of the transformation, the pearlite was lamelliform. When the rate of reduction was increased to 70%, some of the induced lamellar pearlite was broken up under deformation.     

Characterization of the Carbon and Retained Austenite Distributions in Martensitic Medium Carbon, High Silicon Steel

The retained austenite content and carbon distribution in martensite were determined as a function of cooling rate and temper temperature in steel that contained 1.31 at. pct C, 3.2 at. pct Si, and 3.2 at. pct noniron metallic elements. Mössbauer spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), transmission synchrotron X-ray diffraction (XRD), and atom probe tomography were used for the microstructural analyses. The retained austenite content was an inverse, linear function of cooling rate between 25 and 560 K/s. The elevated Si content of 3.2 at. pct did not shift the start of austenite decomposition to higher tempering temperatures relative to SAE 4130 steel. The minimum tempering temperature for complete austenite decomposition was significantly higher (>650 °C) than for SAE 4130 steel (～300 °C). The tempering temperatures for the precipitation of transition carbides and cementite were significantly higher (>400 °C) than for carbon steels (100 °C to 200 °C and 200 °C to 350 °C), respectively. Approximately 90 pct of the carbon atoms were trapped in Cottrell atmospheres in the vicinity of the dislocation cores in dislocation tangles in the martensite matrix after cooling at 560 K/s and aging at 22 °C. The 3.2 at. pct Si content increased the upper temperature limit for stable carbon clusters to above 215 °C. Significant autotempering occurred during cooling at 25 K/s. The proportion of total carbon that segregated to the interlath austenite films decreased from 34 to 8 pct as the cooling rate increased from 25 to 560 K/s. Developing a model for the transfer of carbon from martensite to austenite during quenching should provide a means for calculating the retained austenite. The maximum carbon content in the austenite films was 6 to 7 at. pct, both in specimens cooled at 560 K/s and at 25 K/s. Approximately 6 to 7 at. pct carbon was sufficient to arrest the transformation of austenite to martensite. The chemical potential of carbon is the same in martensite that contains 0.5 to 1.0 at. pct carbon and in austenite that contains 6 to 7 at. pct carbon. There was no segregation of any substitutional elements.     

Isothermal Grain Growth of Austenite in Hypoeutectoid and Hypereutectoid Plain Carbon Steels

Grain growth kinetics of austenite in a hypoeutectoid steel(containing carbon of 0.35%)at 920 ℃ and in a hypereutectoid steel(containing carbon of 1%)at 980 ℃ for holding time ranging from 1 h to 6 h was investigated.The hypoeutectoid steel exhibited normal grain growth without solute drag hindrance with a time exponent(0.51)close to the theoretical value(0.5).However,the grain growth of austenite in the hypereutectoid steel held up to 3 h was extremely slow,characterizing by a low value of time exponent(0.08).Thereafter,a breakaway occurred and the grain growth in the hypereutectoid steel held from 3 h to 6 h progressed normally with a time exponent(0.52)close to the theoretical value(0.5).     

Effect of Ti on Austenite Grain Growth Behavior in High Carbon Steels

Austenite grain growth behavior of two high carbon steels was observed using Confocal l.aser Scanning Mi croscope （CLSM）. Apparent austenite grain sizes for different holding time under a series of temperatures were measured by employing linear intercept method. Experimental results showed that Ti bearing steel exhibited a much sluggish growth rate compared with Ti free counterpart, which was attributed to the pinning effect of Ti（C,N） nan oparticles with the size of 20 to 40 nm on austenite grain boundaries. Based on the research conducted by using Transmission Electron Microscope （TEM） observation and Thermo Calc calculation, Ti（C, N） was confirmed to be the dominant phase at elevated temperature. Some models were introduced to predict the grain sizes of both steels. By comparison, the results predicted by the modified Gladman equation are found to be closest to the experimental resuits, which could be employed to predict accurately the austenite grain growth of high carbon steels.     

Austenite Grain Growth in Peritectic Solidified Carbon Steels Analyzed by Phase-Field Simulation

The formation of coarse columnar grains (CCGs) in the as-cast austenite structure of peritectic carbon steels is a serious problem in continuous casting processes. Recently, it was elucidated that the formation of CCGs is ascribed to a discontinuous grain growth. Furthermore, the critical condition for the discontinuous growth to occur was elicited on the basis of phase-field simulations and a theory of grain growth. In this study, by means of the phase-field simulations, the detailed investigation is carried out for the grain coarsening of the as-cast austenite structure. It is demonstrated in the two-dimensional simulations that the coarsest grain structure emerges by the discontinuous growth in the vicinity of the critical condition. In addition, a model for predicting the upper limit of grain size during the discontinuous growth is proposed. The model successfully describes the experimental result with reasonable accuracy.     

Ti对低碳Mn-V钢奥氏体动态再结晶的影响

采用Gleeble热模拟试验机和透射电镜、扫描电镜及定量金相等分析技术,就钛对低碳Mn-V钢奥氏体晶粒长大行为、奥氏体动态再结晶行为等进行了研究.结果表明,含钛钢中形成稳定的碳氮化钛,对阻止再加热奥氏体晶粒长大有利.含钛钢变形抗力比不含钛钢要高,其动态再结晶开始的临界变形量比不加钛钢的小,易于发生再结晶,且含钛钢的再结晶晶粒尺寸相对较细,再结晶晶粒长大速度也更慢.     

碳含量对钢中碳化铌在奥氏体中固溶度积的影响

 以析出热力学为基础,同时考虑碳含量对碳和铌在奥氏体中活度的影响,对含铌高碳钢中碳化铌在奥氏体中的固溶度积与碳含量的变化关系进行了理论计算,得到含铌高碳钢中碳化铌在奥氏体中的固溶度积随碳含量的变化关系;利用物理化学相分析方法对碳的质量分数为0.75%的高碳钢进行了析出相定量分析。通过对比发现,推导得到的高碳钢中碳化铌在奥氏体中的固溶度积与试验结果吻合得较好,说明该公式可以用来研究高碳钢中碳化铌在奥氏体中的的沉淀析出规律。     

Stress and Composition of Carbon Stabilized Expanded Austenite on Stainless Steel

Low-temperature gaseous carburizing of stainless steel is associated with a colossal supersaturation of the fcc lattice with carbon, without the development of carbides. This article addresses the simultaneous determination of stress and composition profiles in layers of carbon expanded austenite obtained by low-temperature gaseous carburizing of AISI 316. X-ray diffraction was applied for the determination of lattice spacing depth profiles by destructive depth profiling and reconstruction of the original lattice spacing profiles from the measured, diffracted intensity weighted, values. The compressive stress depth distributions correlate with the depth distribution of the strain-free lattice parameter, the latter being a measure for the depth distribution of carbon in expanded austenite. Elastically accommodated compressive stress values as high as −2.7 GPa were obtained, which exceeds the uniaxial tensile yield strength by an order of magnitude. This article is partly based on a presentation given at the “International Conference on Surface Hardening of Stainless Steels,” which occurred October 22–23, 2007 during the ASM Heat Treating Society Meeting in Cleveland, OH under the auspices of the ASM Heat Treating Society and TMS.

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微量硼对低碳贝氏体钢过冷奥氏体转变的影响

采用Gleeble-3800热模拟实验机对加入微量硼的低碳钢进行了动态CCT曲线的测定和组织分析,研究了钢中微量硼在奥氏体晶界上的偏聚作用。结果表明,微量硼的加入降低了碳原子在晶界上的吸附趋势,导致了晶界处珠光体形核率的下降,改变了动态CCT曲线的形状,抑制了珠光体的转变,能明显提高钢的淬透性和强韧性。     

Q235碳素钢超细铁素体在奥氏体内的形核

利用扫描电镜观察了Q235碳素钢形变强化相变过程中超细铁素体在奥氏体内部的形核;使用背散射电子衍射(EBSD)技术分析了析出的铁素体取向.结果表明,随内、外界条件不同,奥氏体内有两类典型的铁素体形核地点:形变带及奥氏体晶界附近的形变不均匀区原始奥氏体晶粒尺寸的增加,形变温度的降低有利于铁素体的形变带形核.在A₃-A_r3的超细铁素体最佳形成温度区间,靠近A₃形变可使铁素体及第2组织均匀分布.形变带形核造成带状分布的铁素体及第2相,不仅形貌上出现方向性,铁素体取向也出现择优.     

Nb对低碳钢奥氏体晶粒长大的影响

在Gleeble 1500热模拟试验机上进行了不同加热温度对Nb的质量分数为0.015%的钢和不含Nb钢奥氏体晶粒尺寸的影响试验.结果表明,在加热温度为1150、1 200和1 230℃时,含Nb钢的奥氏体晶粒尺寸分别小于不含Nb钢的奥氏体晶粒尺寸.但是,当加热温度达到1 240℃时,含Nb钢的奥氏体晶粒却大于不含Nb钢的奥氏体晶粒尺寸.通过理论分析认为,含Nb钢奥氏体晶粒尺寸由小变大的原因是由于Nb原子的晶界内吸附作用所致.     

Effect of Niobium on Transformations From Austenite to Ferrite in Low Carbon Steels

Niobium has an important effect on the transformation behaviour,grain size refinement and precipitation strengthening during hot rolling and subsequent cooling in low carbon steels,with even a low content of niobium having a strong effect on the transformation rate from austenite to ferrite.However,the effects of niobium on transformation behaviour have not been fully characterised and understood to date.This paper examines in detail austenite grain growth as a function of austenitisation time in high strength low alloy (HSLA) steels with three different niobium contents,together with the effect of niobium on the isothermal transformation kinetics from austenite to ferrite as a function of temperature.It is shown that austenite has the slowest grain growth rate in the steel with the highest niobium content.When austenite grain sizes are consistent,the steel with the highest niobium content was found to have the slowest transformation rate from austenite to ferrite.