Nondestructive Quantitative Evaluation of Porosity Volume Distribution in Aluminum Alloy Die Castings by Fractal Analysis

The nondestructive and three-dimensional quantitative evaluation of porosity in aluminum alloy die castings is proposed to identify whether the predominant cause of pore formation is shrinkage or entrapped gas. The validity of this method of evaluation was shown by comparing two different regions with different ratios of pores formed by shrinkage and gas. It was shown that the proposed evaluation can be used as a quantitative indication of porosity.     

Mechanisms of porosity formation during solidification: A theoretical analysis

The formation of porosity during solidification is of great commercial importance and scientific interest. This is particularly so for the question of the “feeding length” of a riser. In this work, a number of theoretical models are derived and their predictions are compared to experimental observations. The comparisons show that in directional solidification, a “thermodynamic” model is useful in predicting when porosity may form. The amount of porosity predicted is too high, however, since it ignores the nucleation of the pore and growth by diffusion of dissolved gas to growing pores. A surprising conclusion of this study is that Darcy’s law does not appear to be a controlling factor in porosity distribution or formation. In particular, Darcy’s law cannot explain feeding length measurements made in steel castings. A simple “geometrical” criterion is presented instead to describe when shrinkage porosity will occur. This new model suggests a number of interesting experiments, which are proposed in discussion.     

Size and Morphology of Gas Porosity in Castings—Insights into Computational Experiments Using a Cellular Automaton Model

Aluminium castings are known to be prone to micro-porosity formation which appears as fine porosity in the inter-dendritic and inter-granular regions of castings. The size, distribution and morphology of such pores significantly affect mechanical and fatigue properties of castings. We use a cellular automaton simulation model as a virtual experimental set-up to study growth of gas bubbles in solidifying aluminium castings. The model assumes that gas porosity originates from pre-existing micro-bubbles that grow by diffusion of hydrogen from the solid–liquid interfaces into the bubbles. The major factors that limit the growth of the bubbles are the finite time available for the diffusion of hydrogen and the space constraint imposed by the growing solid. While the diffusion limitation to pore growth has been studied well, the effect of the space constraint has not received much attention. Our cellular automaton model with growth rules specially adapted for bubble growth tracks the solid–liquid and bubble–liquid interfaces explicitly on a fine grid. Numerical experiments are performed with a eutectic Al–Si alloy solidified with different grain sizes and solidification rates. The micro-structural environment in which a pre-existing bubble finds itself is seen to be the most critical factor that determines the final size and morphology of porosity.     

Microporosity prediction in aluminum alloy castings

A comprehensive methodology that takes into account solidification, shrinkage-driven interdendritic fluid flow, hydrogen precipitation, and porosity evolution has been developed for the prediction of the microporosity fraction and distribution in aluminum alloy castings. The approach may be used to determine the extent of gas and shrinkage porosity, i.e., the resultant microporosity which occurs due to gas precipitation and that which occurs when solidification shrinkage cannot be compensated for by the interdendritic fluid flow. A solution algorithm in which the local pressure and microporosity are coupled is presented, and details of the implementation methodology are provided. The models are implemented in a computational framework consistent with that of commonly used algorithms for fluid dynamics, allowing a straightforward incorporation into existing commercial software. The results show that the effect of microporosity on the interdendritic fluid flow cannot be neglected. The predictions of porosity profiles are validated by comparison with independent experimental measurements by other researchers on aluminum A356 alloy test castings designed to capture a variety of solidification conditions. The numerical results reproduce the characteristic microporosity profiles observed in the experimental results and also agree quantitatively with the experimentally measured porosity levels. The approach provides an enhanced capability for the design of structural castings.     

A model for prediction of pressure and redistribution of gas-forming elements in multicomponent casting alloys

A finite element model for simulating macrosegregation in multicomponent alloys is extended to include the calculation of pressure and redistribution of gas-forming elements during solidification. The model solves the conservation equations of mass, momentum, energy, and alloy components, including gas-forming elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen. The results of transport calculations are contrasted with thermodynamic equilibrium conditions to establish the possible formation of pores, assuming that there is no barrier to nucleation of the pores. By solving the transport of gaseous solutes and comparing their Sievert’s pressure with the local pressure, the new mode can predict regions of possible formation of intergranular porosity. Simulations were performed for a nickel-base alloy (INCONEL 718) in plate castings with equiaxed structure, and the evolution of microporosity for different initial concentrations of hydrogen and nitrogen was analyzed. The simulations showed that during solidification and cooling, a large fraction of the hydrogen escapes and a smaller fraction of nitrogen escapes from the casting. The initial gas concentration is an important factor in porosity formation, but the pressure drop due to shrinkage flow is not very significant. The resulting gas porosity is rather insensitive to initial nitrogen concentration, but sensitive to the concentration of hydrogen.     

Effect of entrapped inert gas on pore filling during liquid phase sintering

The effect of an inert gas entrapped in isolated pores on liquid flow into them during liquid phase sintering has been studied. An analysis of the balance between the capillary pressure of the liquid menisci and the gas pressure shows that the entrapped gas delays the pore filling and produces bubbles. If the gas pressure exceeds a critical level, the pores remain intact and the critical point for their filling will never be reached. These predictions are confirmed by experimental observations on large spherical pores produced artificially in an Fe-Cu alloy. Argon gas is trapped in the pore by first sintering in Ar-H₂ mixture gas and then in H₂ after the isolated pores are formed. The entrapped inert gas of even low pressure is thus shown to cause a substantial porosity in liquid phase sintered specimens. Formerly a Doctoral Student at the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology.     

轻压下对GCr15轴承钢大方坯内部质量的影响

轴承钢棒材中心致密性和碳化物缺陷与大方坯铸态内部质量控制水平密切相关。以GCr15 轴承钢为研究对象,建立了大方坯连铸过程二维纵向凝固传热模型,结合现场测温试验验证了凝固模型的准确性。基于凝固末端轻压下补偿当地凝固收缩、控制中心缩孔的理论,通过对大方坯凝固进程的准确预测,揭示出其糊状区内合理的轻压下范围。其中,浇铸试验条件下对应铸坯中心固相率为0.30~0.75的合理压下区间为16.4~22.5 m。生产试验表明,轻压下对铸坯凝固组织转变与形貌影响不大,但可明显消除中心缩孔,中心疏松也可由1.5级以上稳定降至0.5~1.5级,满足轧制要求; 合理的轻压下位置和适度的轻压下量可明显改善轴承钢大方坯中心缩孔和中心疏松程度,提高轧材探伤合格率。同时也发现,压下位置与压下量分配不合理或不稳定可能诱发铸坯内裂纹,从而不利于轧材质量的稳定性和一致性。当前生产条件下,稳定拉速并在3~6号压下辊合理分配压下量可达到有效改善内部质量的目的。     

On the mechanism of pore formation in metals

The formation of different types of gas pores has been investigated by directional solidification experiments. A mathematical model of pore growth has been derived and the calculated pore growth has been compared with experimental data and a good correlation was found. The nucleation process of pores has also been treated. It was shown that micropores can be homogeneously nucleated in an interdendritic area according to the pressure drop caused by the solidification shrinkage.     

Modeling the Effect of Finite-Rate Hydrogen Diffusion on Porosity Formation in Aluminum Alloys

A volume-averaged model for finite-rate diffusion of hydrogen in the melt is developed to predict pore formation during the solidification of aluminum alloys. The calculation of the micro-/macro-scale gas species transport in the melt is coupled with a model for the feeding flow and pressure field. The rate of pore growth is shown to be proportional to the local level of gas supersaturation in the melt, as well as various microstructural parameters. Parametric studies of one-dimensional solidification under an imposed temperature gradient and cooling rate illustrate that the model captures important phenomena observed in porosity formation in aluminum alloys. The transition from gas to shrinkage dominated porosity and the effects of different solubilities of hydrogen in the eutectic solid, capillary pressures at pore nucleation, and pore number densities are investigated in detail. Comparisons between predicted porosity percentages and previous experimental measurements show good correspondence, although some uncertainties remain regarding the extent of impingement of solid on the pores. This article is based on a presentation made in the symposium “Simulation of Aluminium Shape Casting Processing: From Design to Mechnacial Properties” which occured March 12–16, 2006, during the TMS Spring meeting in San Antonio, Texas, under the auspices of the Computational Materials Science and Engineering Committee, the Process Modelling, Analysis and Control Committee, the Solidification Committee, the Mechanical Behavior of Materials Committee, and the Light Metal Division/Aluminium Committee.     

Metal-gas eutectic growth during unidirectional solidification

Metal-gas eutectic growth is a novel method for fabricating porous metals in which the gas pores are rodlike and aligned with the solidification direction. A new model was developed to predict the effects of the gas pressure and the solidification velocity on the porosity, pore diameter, and interpore spacing in metal-gas eutectic unidirectional solidification. The pore size and the interpore spacing are primarily dependent on the total gas pressure, but the porosity is dependent not only on the total gas pressure but also on the ratio of the partial pressures of hydrogen to argon.     

The effect of na and Sr modification on surface tension and volumetric shrinkage of A356 alloy and their influence on porosity formation

Modification of the eutectic Si in Al-Si foundry alloys by adding strontium or sodium is, unfortunately, accompanied by an increase of porosity in the casting. In an attempt to understand the nature of this problem, this study used a sessile-drop method to investigate the effect of Sr and Na on surface tension and volumetric shrinkage, two probable causes of porosity occur-rence. The addition of 0.01 wt pct Sr and 0.005 wt pct Na to A356 alloy decreases the surface tension of the liquid by about 19 and 10 pct, respectively, and may increase the volume shrink-age by about 12 pct. These changes to surface tension and volumetric shrinkage promote the early formation of the pores during solidification and give the availability of a longer period of growth prior to complete solidification, resulting in a larger pore size. The effect of surface tension on the pores is more significant than volumetric shrinkage. Although the predicted pore diameter increases with lower surface tension or higher volumetric shrinkage, these two effects alone do not seem able to completely account for the observed increase in porosity that is associated with modification.     

LIQUID-FLOW DENSIFICATION IN THE TUNGSTEN CARBIDE–COPPER SYSTEM

Abstract

The fluid-flow stage of densification in two-phase sintering, with minimum contribution from intersolubility effects and change of particle shape, has been studied by selecting the insoluble tungsten carbide-copper system. Density determinations, photography of specimen shrinkage, and microscopic examination were carried out over a range of copper contents, with two carbide particle sizes, for sintering in a hydrogen atmosphere.

When the copper melts it flows into regions of high carbide density to form carbide/copper colonies. If these occupy a minor proportion of the compact, densification is limited and determined by the larger, “rigid” carbide part of the compact, but if the colonies predominate there is massive shrinkage on fluid flow. Overall densification subsequent to fluid flow is unaffected by the presence of the copper. The copper may, however, be redistributed within the compact as hydrogen in pores near the surface diffuses out and the pores shrink, drawing copper from central regions to form a dense skin.

As densification proceeds the carbide particles form a rigid inter-connected framework. On cooling, the copper contracts more than the solid framework so that, even if at high temperatures the compact is fully dense, shrinkage porosity results on solidification.

The structure after the fluid-flow stage is highly dependent on the initial processing. Mixing produces agglomerates of copper that, on melting, flow into the surrounding carbide matrix leaving behind large voids. Ball-milling, in contrast, yields a more uniform green structure and hence a more uniform compact after flow of the copper.     

Investigation on Formation Mechanism of Irregular Shape Porosity in Hypoeutectic Aluminum Alloy by X-Ray Real Time Observation

The formation mechanism of irregular shape porosity in hypoeutectic aluminum silicon alloy (A356) was investigated by X-ray real time observation on porosity evolution during solidification and re-melting. Porosity in the hypoeutectic aluminum A356 alloy with high hydrogen content (>0.3?mL/100?g?Al) first forms in the liquid as small spherical gas bubbles, then expands along with the pressure drop in the mushy zone due to shrinkage and lack of feeding, and finally deforms into irregular morphology by the impingement of aluminum dendrite network. Degassing is a key to eliminate porosity in aluminum alloy castings.     

The critical amount of nitrogen on the formation of nitrogen gas pores during solidification of 25Cr-7Ni duplex stainless steels

The effects of casting thickness, nitrogen contents, cooling rate, and Mn contents on the formation of nitrogen gas pores during solidification of 25Cr-7Ni-1.5Mo-3W duplex stainless steels (DSS) were quantitatively investigated. In the case of a sand mold, the formation of nitrogen gas pore was not affected by the thickness of castings, which ranged from 13 to 52 mm, and the critical initial nitrogen content for the formation of gas pore was 0.30 wt pct. In the case of the molds made of a stainless steel (STS) and water-cooled Cu, the critical initial nitrogen content did not change much compared to the sand mold. The amount of nitrogen gas pores increased with initial nitrogen contents of castings. The segregation of nitrogen and alloying elements was calculated with Thermo-Calc. The calculated data and the experimental results were compared to estimate the critical nitrogen partial pressure in the residual melt for the nucleation of gas pores. The effect of Mn content on the formation of gas pores was also investigated. The increase of Mn content from 1 wt pct to 2.6 wt pct changed the critical initial nitrogen content 0.30 wt pct to 0.40 wt pct.     

Effect of welding variables and solidification substructure on weld metal porosity

Porosity is defined as cavity-type discontinuities formed by gas entrapment during solidification. Causes of porosity in fusion welds are the dissolved gases in weld metal and welding process variables that control the solidification rate. To study the mechanisms of porosity formation in weld metal, single-pass gas tungsten-arc weld metal was produced using the bead-on-plate technique on three nickel-copper alloys (80 wt pct Ni-20 wt pct Cu, 65 wt pct Ni-35 wt pct Cu, 35 wt pct Ni-65 wt pct Cu). Four different welding speeds were used under various amounts of nitrogen content in argon-shielding atmosphere. A qualitative model was proposed to characterize the effect of welding variables and solidification substructure on bulk and interdendritic porosity formation. Increasing amounts of nitrogen gas (from 0.2 pct to 6.0 pct in volume) introduced in argon-shielding atmosphere increased the amount of porosity in weld metal. The amount of bulk and total porosity increased as the solubility of nitrogen in the weld metal alloy decreased. The solidification rate of the weld pool is the most important factor controlling the mechanism of porosity formation. The observed amount of bulk pores in this study increased with the increase of welding speed; that is, if the time is insufficient for dissolved and evolved gases to escape during solidification, porosity will result. However, a decrease in the amount of interdendritic pores was observed with increasing welding speed in the 80Ni-20Cu and 35Ni-65Cu alloys. This decrease can be related to the effect of solidification rate on the balance between the disjoining pressure, resistance of the liquid film to be disrupted, repulsion of the bubble from the solidification front, and the hydrodynamic force resisting the movement of the bubble. This balance determines the ability of the cellular solidification front to “equilibrium” capture the pores. Furthermore, the observed decrease of interdendritic porosity with increasing welding speed (80Ni-20Cu and 35Ni-65Cu alloys) can also be related to the time for nucleation and growth of pores in the molten weld metal and their entrapment in the interdendritic channels of a dendritic solidification front. This phenomenon is considered a “nonequilibrium capture” of pores. On the other hand, the 65Ni-35Cu alloy that exhibited a structural transition in solidification substructure with the variation of welding speed showed a slight increase in the amount of interdendritic pores. This increase was correlated to the change of pore-capture mechanism from an equilibrium to a nonequilibrium mode as the solidification substructure changed from cellular to cellular dendritic. To substantiate that the controlling mechanism of interdendritic porosity formation is the nonequilibrium capture, a good correlation between the measured mean pore radius and the interdendritic arm spacing was found.     

Fabrication of Porous Aluminum with Directional Pores through Continuous Casting Technique

Lotus-type porous aluminum with slender directional pores is fabricated via a continuous casting technique in pressurized hydrogen or a mixed gas containing hydrogen and argon. The influence of solidification conditions such as hydrogen partial pressure, solidification velocity, temperature gradient, and melt temperature on the porosity and pore size is investigated. The porosity and pore size increase upon increasing the hydrogen partial pressure or the melt temperature, whereas the porosity and pore size decrease upon increasing the solidification velocity or the temperature gradient. Furthermore, the mechanism of pore formation in lotus aluminum is examined based on the results of an improved model of hydrogen mass balance in the solidification front, which was originally proposed by Yamamura et al. The results from the present model agree with the experimental results. We conclude that the diffusion of hydrogen rejected in the solidified aluminum near the solid/liquid interface is the most important factor for pore formation because the difference in hydrogen solubility between solid and liquid aluminum is very small.     

Swelling during sintering of titanium alloys based on titanium hydride powder

Abstract

Compacts were prepared by pressing titanium and titanium hydride powders mixed with nickel powder and sintering under vacuum. Severe swelling was observed only for compacts based on TiH₂ powder. Pressure changes in the vacuum furnace, dilatometry results and mass loss data all indicate that dehydrogenation of TiH₂ powder compacts occurs at lower temperature than any significant sintering. Swelling appears to have been caused by a contaminant in the TiH₂ powder rather than hydrogen. The onset of severe swelling during heating was associated with the formation of liquid phase as the solidus was crossed. However, some swelling appears to take place under solid state sintering conditions. Various results indicate that the mechanism of swelling is high gas pressure within closed pores. Large pores appear to form by breakage of ligaments between small pores followed by opening of the pore. It appears that the use of (uncontaminated) TiH₂ powder in place of Ti powder would allow the benefit of lower green porosity to be retained during sintering to achieve low sintered porosity.     

Kinetics of pore size increase in the activated sintering of powdered tungsten

Conclusions An increase in the size of pores determined by the Barus-Bechgold method in porous specimens from fine tungsten and tungsten-nickel powders takes place during heating to the isothermal sintering temperature. The addition of nickel to tungsten activates the pore size growth process. The size of the increased pore channels in porous solids from W and W-0.46% Ni powders in the temperature range 1000–1300°C depends on the particle size and sintering temperature. A correlation has been found between the integral shrinkage during isothermal sintering and the capillary stresses acting on the attainment of the isothermal sintering temperature in compacts from W-0.46% Ni powders of various particle sizes. The rates of isothermal shrinkage are the same, being independent of the previous history of the powders.Translated from Poroshkovaya Metallurgiya, No. 9(249), pp. 18–23, September, 1983.