Redox Effect on the Hydraulic Conductivity of Clay Liner

Microbial activities can be enhanced by organic rich leachate occurring in solid waste landfills, which possesses the potential to alter the barrier capacity of clay liners. Flexible-wall hydraulic conductivity tests are conducted to investigate the effect of the microbial activities on the hydraulic conductivity of Osaka marine clay used for clay liners of offshore solid waste landfill sites in Japan. Permeants with different redox potentials are employed to investigate the redox effect; and, permeants with high nutrients are used to check the effect of the microbial production in soil specimens. Test results indicate that there are no obvious changes in the free swell index, the liquid limit, or the hydraulic conductivity of the marine clay when a strong reducing agent is used. When nutrients are applied for the growth of microorganisms, however, a decrease in hydraulic conductivity, ranging from greater than two orders of magnitude to less than one order of magnitude, is observed. The formation of biofilm and anaerobic inorganic precipitation on the surface of the soil particles is considered to be responsible for this reduction in hydraulic conductivity. Test results reveal that microbial activities, enhanced by landfill leachate, may not cause an increase in the hydraulic conductivity of natural clay liners of offshore landfill sites.     

侧限状态下高压实高庙子膨润土非饱和渗透性的试验研究

高放废弃物深地质处置库中,由高压实膨润土形成的人工屏障,起着阻障围岩中地下水渗入内库并引起核素迁移以及库内高放废物的辐射扩散的作用。因此,有必要研究侧限状态下高压实膨润土的非饱和渗透性能。采用瞬时截面法试验研究了侧限状态下高压实高庙子膨润土的非饱和渗透特性。结果表明:侧限状态下,干密度为1.7g/cm3的高压实高庙子膨润土的非饱和渗透系数,数值为1.13×10-13～8.41×10-15m/s,且与土中吸力呈非单一增减关系。当土中吸力约为68MPa时,非饱和渗透系数最小;吸力大于68MPa时,其非饱和渗透系数随着吸力的增加而增加;而当吸力小于68MPa时,非饱和渗透系数随着土中吸力的增加而减小。     

Hydraulic Conductivity of Nonprehydrated Geosynthetic Clay Liners Permeated with Inorganic Solutions and Waste Leachates

To investigate systematically the effects of electrolytic solutions on the barrier performance of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs), a long-term hydraulic conductivity test for 3 years at longest was conducted on a nonprehydrated GCL permeated with inorganic chemical solutions. The hydraulic conductivity test for waste leachates was also conducted. The results of the test show that the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs significantly correlates with the swelling capacity of bentonite contained in GCLs. GCLs have excellent barrier performance of k<1.0×10^-8 cm/s when the free swell is larger than 15 mL/2 g-solid regardless of the type and concentration of the permeant solution. In addition, when the results of the hydraulic conductivity test with chemical inorganic solutions were compared to those with waste leachates, the hydraulic conductivity of GCL permeated with chemical solution was almost the same within the electric conductivity of 0-25 S/m as that permeated with waste leachate having similar electric conductivity. The hydraulic conductivity of GCLs to be used in landfill bottom liners can be estimated by the hydraulic conductivity values obtained from the experiment using chemical solutions having the similar electric conductivity values, if the chemical solution had the electric conductivity within=25 S/m.     

Chemical interaction and hydraulic performance of geosynthetic clay liners isothermally hydrated from silty sand subgrade

The effects of the silt aggregation, compaction density, and water content of the subgrade on the hydration of five different geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) products is reported based on a series of laboratory column experiments conducted over a six-year period. GCLs meeting typical specifications in terms of minimum hydraulic conductivity and swell index are hydrated to equilibrium from the same subgrade soil with sufficient cations to cause cation exchange during hydration. It is then shown that the GCL bentonite granularity and GCL structure can have a significant (~four orders of magnitude) effect on hydraulic conductivity under the same test conditions (from 8 × 10⁻¹² m/s for one GCL to 6 × 10⁻⁸ m/s for another GCL product). The effect of subgrade water content on the hydraulic performance of GCLs are not self-evident and quite dependent on the bentonite granularity, GCL structure, and permeant. Varying the subgrade water content from 5 to 16% and allowing the GCL to hydrate to equilibrium before permeation led to up to 5-fold difference in hydraulic conductivity when permeated with tap water and up to 60-fold difference when the same product is permeated with synthetic municipal solid waste leachate. When permeated with synthetic leachate, increasing stress from 70 kPa to 150 kPa led to a slight (average 37%; maximum 2.7-fold) decrease in hydraulic conductivity due to a decrease in bulk void ratio. It is shown that hydraulic conductivity is lower for GCLs with a scrim-reinforced geotextile, and/or with finer bentonite. It is shown that selecting a GCL based on the initial hydraulic conductivity and swell index in a manufacturers product sheet provides no assurance of good performance in field applications and it is recommended that designers pay more attention to selection of a GCL and preparation of the subgrade for important projects.     

Hydraulic conductivity test system for compacted, 2-mm-thick bentonite specimens

Both the design and safety assessment of radioactive waste disposal facilities demand an accurate evaluation of the hydraulic conductivity of the bentonite materials, especially compacted bentonite. For permeability tests of bentonite materials, the lengthy time necessary for specimen saturation and measurement may present a bottleneck. The permeability behavior of bentonite, such as the effects of the water quality and the exchangeable cations, has not been systematized sufficiently. For the present study, a hydraulic conductivity test system with 2-mm-thick specimens was developed. Its applicability was evaluated in terms of test accuracy. Six specimens of compacted Japanese sodium bentonite, with dry densities of 1.34–1.79 Mg/m³, were subjected to falling head hydraulic conductivity tests. The results showed that the hydraulic gradient set for this study did not affect the hydraulic conductivity, indicating that the macroscopic hydraulic behavior was consistent with Darcy's law. Furthermore, it was possible to reduce the test period considerably, by about one-tenth, compared to that using 10-mm-thick specimens. The obtained hydraulic conductivity was found to be similar to that in earlier studies. Furthermore, the values showed less variation particularly in terms of the consolidation test results. The results demonstrated that 2-mm-thick specimens are useful for hydraulic conductivity measurements of compacted bentonite.     

溶液作用下黏土的界限含水率及渗透试验

黏性土的界限含水率是用于土的分类和评价的重要指标,并可能与渗透系数等参数具有一定的相关性,但溶液作用下界限含水率的变化规律没有一致的结论。选取填埋场渗滤液中的几种代表性溶液,对0~15%含量的膨润土改性黏土的界限含水率及渗透性进行了试验。研究发现,CaCl₂溶液和乙酸溶液具有絮凝作用,使高液限黏土变为高液限粉土;膨润土改性黏土的液限和塑性指数与膨润土掺入量正相关;改性黏土的液限随CaCl₂溶液浓度的增大而减小;渗透系数与液限之间没有显著相关性,溶液作用下土的渗透性能还需要深入研究。     

Effects of Water Content Distribution on Hydraulic Conductivity of Prehydrated GCLS against Calcium Chloride Solutions

When geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are applied as bottom liners at waste containment facilities, they are naturally prehydrated by absorbing moisture in the underlying base layers. In order to evaluate the effects of cations contained in waste leachates, this study investigated the effects of the water content distribution of the GCLs prehydrated with actual soils on their hydraulic conductivities against CaCl₂ solutions. The “prehydration tests”, which were conducted prior to the hydraulic conductivity tests, showed that the water content distribution of the prehydrated GCLs depends on the properties of the GCLs and the base layers. In particular, drastic differences between GCLs with powdered bentonite and GCLs with granular bentonite were observed in the prehydration water content and its distribution. Prehydrated GCLs with powdered bentonite had a higher water content and a more homogenous distribution than those with granular bentonite. The hydraulic conductivity tests showed that most of the prehydrated GCLs exhibit a low hydraulic conductivity of k?1.0×10^-8 cm/s against CaCl₂ solutions with 0.1-0.5 M. However, GCLs with granular bentonite may be difficult to homogeneously prehydrate and exhibit an unstable hydraulic conductivity, which varies from k=2.9×10^-9 cm/s to k=1.5×10^-6 cm/s. The homogeneity of the water content distribution has been considered an important factor to obtain a required barrier performance under prehydration conditions, which are naturally generated in actual sites.     

The effects of technological voids on the hydro-mechanical behaviour of compacted bentonite–sand mixture

Compacted bentonite-based materials are often used as buffer materials in radioactive waste disposal. A good understanding of their hydro-mechanical behaviour is essential to ensure disposal safety. In this study, a mixture of MX80 bentonite and sand was characterised in the laboratory in terms of water retention property, swelling pressure, compressibility and hydraulic conductivity. The effects of the technological voids or the voids inside the soil were investigated. The technological voids are referred to as the macro-pores related to different interfaces involving the buffer material, whereas the voids inside the soil are referred to as common macro-pores within the compacted bentonite/sand mixture. The results obtained show that at high suction, the amount of water absorbed in the soil depends solely on suction, whereas at low suction it depends on both suction and the bentonite void ratio. There is a unique relationship between the swelling pressure and the bentonite void ratio, regardless of the sample nature (homogeneous or not) and the sand fraction. However, at the same bentonite void ratio, a higher hydraulic conductivity was obtained on the samples with technological voids. The effect of sand fraction was evidenced in the mechanical yield behaviour: at the same bentonite void ratio, the bentonite–sand mixture yielded at a higher pre-consolidation stress.     

Hydrodynamic assessment of bentonite granule size and granule swelling on hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners

Flow in an idealized geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) containing bentonite comprised of equisized and equispaced square granules was simulated using a hydrodynamic model to quantitatively evaluate the premise that the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs diminishes as the bentonite granules hydrate and swell into adjacent intergranular pores, creating smaller and tortuous intergranular flow paths. Predictions with the model indicate that hydraulic conductivity decreases as granules swell and intergranular pores become smaller, and that greater granule swelling during hydration is required to achieve low hydraulic conductivity when the bentonite is comprised of larger granules, or the bentonite density is lower (lower bentonite mass per unit area). Predictions made with the model indicate that intergranular pores become extremely small (<1 μm) as the hydraulic conductivity approaches 10⁻¹¹ m/s. These outcomes are consistent with experimental data showing that GCLs are more permeable when hydrated and permeated with solutions that suppress swelling of the bentonite granules, and that the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs with bentonite having smaller intergranular pores (e.g., GCLs with smaller bentonite granules, more broadly graded particles, or higher bentonite density) is less sensitive to solutions that suppress swelling.     

基于电阻率静力触探的海相黏土成因特性分析

土的电阻率是表征土体导电性的基本参数,也是反映土体固有物性的一个综合性指标。众所周知,土的电阻率影响因素较多,因此电阻率随深度的变化可以反映出土体的许多性状。电阻率静力触探(RCPT)作为一种新型的原位测试技术,除可测锥尖阻力、侧壁摩阻力和孔隙水压力以外,还可以同时测试土的电阻率。首先简要介绍了RCPT测试技术,采用电阻率静力触探(RCPT)在连云港海相黏土场地进行了试验,得到土的原位电阻率测试值。结合连云港海相黏土的室内物理化学分析试验,研究了其矿物成分、沉积化学特征,分析了该海相软黏土的电阻率指标与矿物成分、离子含量、胶结特性和氧化环境间的关系。分析表明:基于RCPT测试成果是可以充分反映出连云港海相黏土的成因特性的。     

Hydraulic performance and chemical compatibility of a powdered Na-bentonite geosynthetic clay liner permeated with mine drainage

The hydraulic and chemical compatibility of a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL), containing powdered Na-bentonite, was evaluated against artificial acid rock drainage (ARD) in terms of the swell index, hydraulic conductivity and heavy metal retention. Six artificial ARDs with an approximate pH of 3 and different metal concentrations (electrical conductivity, EC, ranging between 75 and 1000 mS/m; ionic strength ranging between 8 and 400 mM) were used in the experiments. The results of free swelling tests showed that high metal concentrations (EC higher than 70 mS/m) negatively impact the swell volume by lowering it. The hydraulic conductivity of the GCL permeated with distilled water was 1.2 × 10^?11 m/s, falling in the range of 7.9 × 10^?12 to 1.1 × 10^?10 m/s when prehydrated with distilled water and permeated with ARDs. The ion exchange and metal precipitation appeared to be the main mechanisms controlling the metal attenuation on the bentonite. The ion exchange mechanism starts with the release of Na from the bentonite and the sorption of the bi- and tri-metals present in the ARDs onto the bentonite. After the depletion of Na, the ion exchange reaction proceeds with the desorption of Ca and Mg from the bentonite and the sorption of cations present in the ARDs onto the bentonite layers. The depletion of Na from the bentonite and the subsequent release of Ca and Mg correlate to the sudden drop in pH and a gradual increase or equilibration of the hydraulic conductivity. It is possible to say that, after this point, hydraulic and chemical equilibrium is reached. From the overall results, the tested GCL showed acceptably low hydraulic conductivity and the potential to attenuate heavy metals present in ARDs.     

Temperature and concentration dependence of ammonium migration in bentonite-clay mixtures: A case study in Hanoi,Vietnam

Groundwater in southern Hanoi, Vietnam has been recently detected to possess high concentration of ammonium ion (NH₄⁺). Otherwise, one of the abundant sources of NH₄⁺ comes from municipal solid waste landfills. Bentonite-clay mixtures (BCMs) widely utilized as landfill bottom barriers in various countries, but limited in Vietnam should perform well to isolate NH₄⁺ from groundwater. This study is to evaluate combined effects of temperature and initial ammonium concentration on adsorption, diffusion, and permeability through mixtures of indigenous clay with 0 %, 5 %, 10 %, 15 % bentonite. The results indicated more effective NH₄⁺ adsorption capacity for low initial concentration than high initial concentration in all temperatures (20, 35, and 50 °C). The temperature dependency showed an increase in adsorption coefficient from 20 °C to 35 °C and a decrease in the range of 35 °C and 50 °C. Whereas diffusion coefficient and hydraulic conductivity for all cases keep increasing gradually in both temperature ranges. The reasonable mass of bentonite content of 15 % should be added into local clay for landfill bottom liners in such conditions of elevated temperature at 50 °C and interaction of ammonium solution 1000 mg/L. The micro-structures via SEM images of these materials provided the proofs of both improvement of hydraulic barrier properties for indigenous clay owing to bentonite presence and NH₄⁺ effects on their micro-structures.     

利用膨润土的膨胀和稠度特性对GCL渗透系数进行预测的试验研究

以土工合成粘土衬垫(Geosynthetic Clay Liner,GCL)在尾矿库防渗层中的应用为背景,研究不同浓度重金属离子(Cu和Zn)作用下,膨润土的自由膨胀量、液限及GCL渗透系数的变化规律,并分析它们之间的对应关系。试验结果显示,当重金属离子浓度在0.01mol/L到0.1mol/L之间递增时,膨润土的自由膨胀量和液限会随着重金属离子浓度的增大而大幅度减小,但当重金属离子浓度从0.1mol/L增加到0.5mol/L时,膨润土的自由膨胀量和液限则只有微小变化。在渗透试验中,当渗透溶液中重金属离子浓度小于0.01mol/L时,GCL的渗透系数能够保持稳定;但当重金属离子浓度大于0.02mol/L后,GCL的渗透系数会随着渗透溶液中重金属离子的浓度增加而不断升高。研究结果表明,当尾矿库渗滤液中重金属离子浓度大于0.02mol/L时,GCL的渗透系数与膨润土的自由膨胀量和液限之间具有良好的数学对应关系,可以利用自由膨胀量和液限对渗透系数进行预测。     

Impact of a synthetic leachate on permittivity of GCLs measured by filter press and oedopermeameter tests

Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are used in landfill liner applications due primarily to their low hydraulic conductivity to water. The low hydraulic conductivity of GCLs comes from the structure of the clay in the bentonite. However, the interaction between clay and aggressive liquids may alter the structure of the clay and, thus, result in an increase in the hydraulic conductivity of the GCL. This paper presents the results of a project aimed at evaluating the impact of a synthetic leachate on the structure of four different bentonites used in the manufacturing of GCLs. The preparation of bentonite dispersions increased the interaction between the bentonites and the various liquids. The hydraulic properties of the dispersions also were tested using filter press tests to obtain flow curves. Results of these tests were correlated with the cationic concentration, electrical conductivity and pH of the dispersions, swell indexes of the bentonite extracted from the GCLs, and permittivities of the intact GCLs determined in oedopermeameter tests. The results showed that one bentonite was more sensitive to the synthetic leachate than the other bentonites. For example, the permittivities of the more sensitive bentonite based on the oedopermeameter tests and filter press tests were respectively 2.11 × 10⁻⁸ s⁻¹ and 5.6 × 10⁻⁸ s⁻¹, whereas the permittivities for other bentonites, including a natural sodium bentonite and two sodium-activated calcium bentonites, were respectively 5.7 to 6.5 × 10⁻⁹ s⁻¹ and 3.2 to 3.5 × 10⁻⁸ s⁻¹. The filter press test served as a quick and easy-to-use test to compare the performance of the various bentonites in containing a given liquid. However, the oedopermeameter test or direct permeation test is preferable to filter press tests or fluid loss tests for evaluating the long-term impact of a liquid on a bentonite.     

Modelling the effects of test conditions on the measured swelling pressure of compacted bentonite

In the current concept of repositories for radioactive waste disposal, compacted bentonite and bentonite-based materials with low hydraulic conductivity are being used as engineered barriers to inhibit the migration of radioactive nuclides. To ensure low hydraulic conductivity, the swelling characteristics of compacted bentonite are also important. However, previous studies have shown that swelling pressure measurements vary considerably and that this variation may be attributable to the differences in testing apparatuses. This variability increases the uncertainty in the design of the facilities. Thus, in this study, an improved stress–strain model for bentonite materials during the saturation process is proposed. The validity of the model is confirmed by comparing the experimental results obtained using several test methods with the simulated results from the model. Consequently, it is found that the swelling pressure test results of compacted bentonite, which are affected by several factors, such as the stiffness of the test cell, the height of the specimen, and the initial degree of saturation, can be numerically simulated using the proposed model. Thus, the effects of these factors on the test results can be evaluated quantitatively using the proposed model.     

高压实高庙子膨润土GMZ01的膨胀力特征

 高放废物深地质处置中，缓冲/回填材料系统起着工程屏障、水力学屏障、化学屏障、传导和散失放射性废物衰变热等重要作用，是高放废物地质处置库长期安全性和稳定性的有效保障。前人研究表明，膨润土是理想的缓冲/回填材料。在归纳总结压实膨润土膨胀力的室内试验研究成果的基础上，采用恒体积试验法研究高压实高庙子膨润土GMZ01的膨胀力特性，该膨润土已经被确定为我国高放废物地质处置库首选缓冲材料。结果表明，高压实高庙子膨润土GMZ01膨胀力随时间的变化曲线是一条渐近线，而时间/膨胀力与时间之间存在很好的线性关系；膨胀力发展过程曲线与吸水量曲线具有明显的阶段性特征；高压实高庙子膨润土的膨胀力和干密度之间存在指数关系，干密度是影响膨胀力的一项重要的因素。所取得的膨胀力特性成果，对于高庙子膨润土膨胀性能的正确判定具有非常重要的意义。     

Combined effects of ammonium permeation and dry-wet cycles on the hydraulic conductivity and internal properties of geosynthetic clay liners

The hydraulic conductivity of geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) permeated with deionized water (S0) and NH₄⁺ solutions, with concentrations of 100 mg/L (S100) and 1000 mg/L (S1000), was examined under six dry-wet cycles. The internal properties of virgin, desiccated, and healed GCLs were analyzed and quantified using X-ray computed tomography images. The hydraulic conductivity of the GCLs permeated with S0 and S100 underwent a negligible change during the six dry-wet cycles, whereas that of S1000 increased by almost three orders of magnitude after two desiccations. Each desiccation, after permeating with S0 and S100, generated a completely different macro-crack pattern; however, generation of macro-cracks at the same locations from dry cycles 2 to 6 and an abundance of micro-cracks were typical for S1000. This implies the severe deterioration of bentonite due to multi-desiccations and chemical compatibility with S1000. Moreover, the swell index of bentonite exposed to S1000 was reduced by approximately half, after six dry-wet cycles. Despite the lower volume percentage of macro-cracks for S1000 compared to S0 and S100, the swelling capacity of this bentonite was insufficient to fully heal these cracks. Hence, the swelling properties of bentonite dominate crack volume with regard to determining the hydraulic conductivity of GCLs.     

CaCl_2作用下PAC改良膨润土滤饼的渗透特性研究

膨润土在盐溶液作用下化学相容性降低,严重影响膨润土系隔离墙的防渗性能。PB为提高膨润土在盐溶液作用下的防渗性能,通过将2%的聚阴离子纤维素(PAC)与钠化膨润土(CB)直接拌合,制备一种聚合物改良膨润土(PB)。基于改进滤失试验测试不同压力下受CaCl_2溶液和蒸馏水作用的PB滤饼渗透系数(分别为kc和kw)。结果表明,随CaCl_2浓度增大,PB试样的滤失液体积和滤饼渗透系数增大,但PB试样滤失液体积始终小于规范限值(25m L)。在试验溶液浓度范围内,PB滤饼渗透系数小于未经改良的CB滤饼渗透系数。相同有效应力作用下,随CaCl_2浓度增大,PB滤饼含水率w降低,导致孔隙比虽减小,PB但渗透系数增大;而有效应力的增长可抵消一部分化学溶液对滤饼渗透系数的影响。当CaCl_2浓度≤60 m M时,PB的kc/kw10,其渗透系数无明显增长,表明采用PAC对膨润土进行改良,可有效提高盐溶液作用下膨润土滤饼的防渗性能。     

Membrane behavior of bentonite-amended compacted clay

The performance of landfill liners can be enhanced if they exhibit a semipermeable membrane behavior, which restricts the migration of contaminants. Consequently, enhancing the membrane property of clays used for liners is becoming increasingly important. As bentonite has already proven to be an excellent additive for improving the membrane behavior of clay, the hydraulic conductivities and membrane behaviors of a locally available clay, known as Fukakusa clay, amended with different amounts of dry bentonite (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) were herein evaluated. The chemico-osmotic efficiency coefficient, ω, was obtained under different concentration differences of KCl solution (0.5, 1, 5, 10, and 50 mM) for specimens in rigid-wall cells. The test results show that the ω of unamended clay is very low and can be ignored unless amended with bentonite, and that hydraulic conductivity k is suitably low (1.58×10⁻⁹ m/s). Additionally, ω decreased as the KCl concentration increased, which is consistent with the theory that increasing concentration causes progressively greater shrinkage of the diffuse-double layers of the clay particles. Furthermore, the mechanisms that influence the membrane behavior are discussed from the viewpoints of the diffuse-double layer and the interparticle pore size with the assistance of SEM.     

一种缓冲回填材料的筛选及其特性：西班牙实例

介绍了西班牙在高放废物深地质处置中用于缓冲回填材料的泥岩的筛选及其特性的研究成果，这项研究在西班牙核废料管理委员会资助下进行，始于20世纪80年代，且在开始阶段主要是开展泥岩沉积层及黏土供应商的筛选工作。黏土这些特性与标准己被国际社会广泛接受，但进一步的研究主要涉及到泥岩的矿物纯度、持水特性、可塑性、低渗透性、较高的膨胀压力和热导性。经初步研究，确定两种膨润土沉积层被选中，并在实验室中对其特性进行了研究，主要包括：热-水-力特性的确定、预加热和温度的影响以及石英添加剂的作用。由于膨润土具有较高的膨胀性以及低渗透性，因而必须对传统的试验技术进行改进，并设计出新的试验设备。最终确定Cortijo de Archidona（Almer／a）选为西班牙膨润土的供应区，其开采的膨润土已在近期结束的数个研究课题中得到了应用。无论是从矿物学、热学、水力学、力学和地质化学，还是从可变性等方面看来，该区膨润土的特性部是最好的；另外，处置库中膨润土的变化特征在实验室以及现场都已经作了相应的研究。