Developments of energy in EU–unlocking the wave energy potential

The New Entrance Reserve (NER300) is one of the leading mechanisms used for the application and promotion of clean energy projects. In this context, this study aims to investigate the evolution of wave energy projects within the first and second call of NER300. Furthermore, the study tries to identify the reasons of successful applications through an estimation analysis of energy production, avoided emission and energy security. Milder resources contain ‘hidden’ opportunities for wave energy, with lower expenditure and capacity factors equivalent and even over 20%. Lower extreme events indicate that associated installation costs can be considered reduced, thus the potential cost of energy may act as a positive driver for future development. The results of the study argue that there are regions with ‘hidden’ opportunities that can accelerate proof-of-concept and enhance viability for wave energy.     

Seasonal relationship of peak demand and energy impacts of energy efficiency measures—a review of evidence in the electric energy efficiency programmes

While energy efficiency programmes traditionally focus on energy savings, there is also a policy interest in their impact on system peak demand. Examples include demand-side management, integrated resource planning and recent developments to integrate energy efficiency into forward capacity markets. However, there is only limited research on the relationship between peak demand impacts and overall energy savings from efficiency measures, although this relationship can have important bearings on efficiency programmes. This paper reviews utility efficiency programmes in nine jurisdictions in North America and analyses how the seasonal peak-energy relationship differs between commercial and industrial (C&I) and residential sectors, among efficiency measures. In terms of the seasonal difference in peak demand impacts, these programmes show that residential lighting and residential water heating can deliver greater peak savings in weekday early evening winter peak periods. By contrast, C&I lighting and residential appliances make higher peak savings in weekday afternoon summer peak periods. A seasonal difference is more significant in lighting, especially residential lighting, than other measures. The evidence from North America also suggests that space cooling in both sectors and C&I lighting may well make greater peak savings relative to non-peak impacts than other measures during summer peak periods, while in winter peak periods, residential lighting can achieve greater peak savings relative to non-peak impacts. This review highlights the significance of regional electricity use patterns along with climatic and regulatory conditions and indicates how further research may contribute to appropriate electricity demand reduction programme design and monitoring regimes in particular regions.     

Occupants’ acceptability of zero energy housing in Finland

Based on an extensive Finnish data covering 1350 interviews the authors surveyed the end users’ perceptions concerning improved energy efficiency, renewable energy integration and zero energy housing. The data has wide social coverage and it matches well with both age and gender distribution in Finland. The survey indicates that solar photovoltaic panels and heat pumps are among most familiar renewable energy technologies to the interviewed occupants while the panels also enjoy the most positive image among the interviewees. However, the interviewees’ willingness to pay extra for energy efficient improvements was more munificent than that for the renewable energy installations. Zero energy buildings were only known to roughly half of the interviewees while 48.9% of the respondents did not even know whether there is an energy performance certificate for their house or not.     

Renewables in Africa—meeting the energy needs of the poor

This paper presents estimates of renewables energy technologies disseminated in sub-Sahara Africa and evaluates the potential of renewables in meeting the energy needs of Africa's poor. Using data mainly from eastern and southern Africa, the paper examines five major renewable energy technologies, namely: (i) large-scale biomass energy; (ii) small-scale biomass energy (iii) solar photovoltaic; (iv) solar thermal; and (v) wind. It then evaluates how suitable each renewable energy technology is to meet the energy needs of the urban and rural poor. The paper ends with key measures that could encourage the large-scale dissemination of renewable energy technologies to the poor in Africa.     

Fusion energy : An energy source of the future?

With an increasing world population and a growing economy, the demand for energy is sure to grow. The latest predictions for world energy demand all show an upward trend and even with increased energy efficiency we will still need substantially more energy by 2050 than we use today. Where's it to come from? Dr Federico Casci of the European Fusion Development Agreement (EFDA) organisation believes part of the answer is fusion…     

The role of coal in energy policy and sustainable development of Turkey: Is it compatible to the EU energy policy?

This paper aims to assess the current and future role of coal in energy strategy of Turkey, and evaluates the compatibility of policies to the EU energy policy and strategy. Coal is regarded as the most important indigenous energy source in Turkey together with hydropower to strengthen the supply security of the country. Turkish government set targets to fully utilize coal reserves of the country in next decades. However, the country is also in the process of becoming an EU Member State, hence, it is expected that the energy policies have to comply with the EU. Moreover, Turkey ratified Kyoto Protocol in 2009, thus the country should limit CO₂ emission together with other greenhouse gases. The probable obstacles that Turkey may face due to the utilization of coal were determined as CO₂ emissions, lack of technology and application in Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) and health and safety issues. It is concluded that coal is a very important domestic energy source for Turkey but new policies have to be developed and adopted immediately, and more realistic targets for the country should be set accordingly.     

Comparison of the evolution of energy intensity in Spain and in the EU15. Why is Spain different?

Energy intensity in Spain has increased since 1990, while the opposite has happened in the EU15. Decomposition analysis of primary energy intensity ratios has been used to identify which are the key sectors driving the Spanish evolution and those responsible for most of the differences with the EU15 energy intensity levels. It is also a useful tool to quantify which countries and economic sectors have had most influence in the EU15 evolution. The analysis shows that the Spanish economic structure is driving the divergence in energy intensity ratios with the EU15, mainly due to strong transport growth, but also because of the increase of activities linked to the construction boom, and the convergence to EU levels of household energy demand. The results can be used to pinpoint successful EU strategies for energy efficiency that could be used to improve the Spanish metric.     

Environmental effects of energy crop cultivation in Sweden—II: Economic valuation

In this paper, environmental benefits of the cultivation of perennial energy crops in Sweden, which have been identified and quantified in an earlier paper, are evaluated economically. Several different benefits, ranging from global to site-specific, could be achieved by replacing annual food crops with perennial energy crops. The economic value of these environmental benefits, including reductions in costs to farmers (direct costs) and to society as a whole (external costs), has been estimated to be from US$ 0.1 up to US$ 5/GJ biomass. For comparison, the production costs (excluding transport) of Salix and reed canary grass are about 4.4 and US$ 5.0/GJ, respectively. Purification of waste water in energy crop cultivation has the highest economic value, followed by reduced nutrient leaching through riparian buffer strips, recirculation of sewage sludge, and reduced wind erosion through shelter belts consisting of Salix. The value of other environmental benefits is estimated to be less than US$ 0.7/GJ. If 200,000 ha of Sweden’s totally available arable land of 2.8 Mha were available for energy crop cultivation, around 45 PJ biomass could theoretically be produced per year, at an average cost of about US$ 0.7/GJ, including the value of environmental benefits. It is assumed that priority is given to cultivations with the highest total value, as several different environmental effects could be achieved on the same cultivation site. If 800,000 ha were to be available, the corresponding cost of some 150 GJ biomass per year would be around US$ 2.8/GJ.     

What causes the change in energy demand in the economy?: The role of technological change

This paper proposes a simple and theoretically clear approach to the estimation of technological change in a multisector general equilibrium framework. This study employs the Multiple Calibration Decomposition Analysis (MCDA) to evaluate technological change that is responsible for changes in energy use and carbon dioxide emissions in the Japanese economy in the oil crises period from 1970 to 1985. The MCDA serves as an elementary way of separating structural change due to technological change from that due to price substitution effects, capturing the interdependence among economic sectors. The empirical result provides a better understanding of the effects on the economy of technological change in that significant period.     

LMDI decomposition analysis of energy consumption in Andalusia (Spain) during 2003–2012: the energy efficiency policy implications

The aim of this paper is to analyse the changes in final energy consumption in Andalusia through logarithmic mean Divisia index (LMDI) decomposition analysis during the period 2003–2012. The results lead us to conclude that a reduction of final energy (FE) consumption of 1 % took place as a result of a diminishing in structural effect by 11 % and an increase in the activity effect and intensity effect by 7.4 and 3.5 %, respectively. Chain-linked LMDI decomposition shows the existence of two sub-periods, with a turning point in 2008. The first period, coinciding to a great extent with the Andalusian Energy Plan 2003–2006 (PLEAN), showed an increase in final energy consumption, mostly due to the activity effect but also to the intensity effect. The second period, coinciding with the implementation of the Andalusian Sustainable Energy Plan 2007–2013 (PASENER), shows a reduction in the activity, structure and intensity effects. The results allow us to conclude that many of the energy efficiency measures, implemented through the PASENER, are related to sectors that experienced a decline in energy consumption due to the intensity effect, such as transport, primary and service sectors. Additionally, although they were included in PASENER, more policy attention should be given to the energy transformation, residential and industrial sectors which increased the demand for energy due to the intensity effect during this period. Finally, the energy-saving behaviour of economic agents due to the economic downturn should also be considered as an explanation for the diminishing in energy consumption during this sub-period.     

Fiscal impacts of energy efficiency programmes—The example of solid wall insulation investment in the UK

Programmes supporting the installation of energy efficiency measures typically incur a cost in the form of subsidies as well as lost VAT income due to reduced energy consumption. Those costs are to some extent offset by the tax receipts and other revenue streams generated as a result of the activities promoted under the programme. In this paper we analyse the budgetary effects of energy efficiency programmes focusing on the example of solid wall insulation in the UK. Three distinct subsidy options have been defined and modelled for the purpose of this research including two policies with varying degrees of direct subsidy and a low interest loan scheme. Our analysis shows that a significant amount of the cost of a scheme funding solid wall insulation would be offset by increased revenues and savings. A loan scheme, due to the high leverage, achieves not only budget neutrality but generates additional revenue for the Exchequer.     

Green energy in Europe: What's new in 2001?

This column discusses developments and policy regarding the supply and use of green energy. It is a co-operation between Refocus and www.greenprices.com. In each issue key information will be presented on green energy in Europe and abroad. In this issue some observations are made on green energy pricing and market developments in Europe up to the first quarter of 2001.     

Environmental effects of energy crop cultivation in Sweden—I: Identification and quantification

This paper presents an analysis of how energy crop cultivations in Sweden, consisting of short-rotation forest (Salix) and energy grass (reed canary grass), can be located and managed to maximise environmental benefits. The overall conclusion is that substantial environmental benefits, ranging from global to site-specific, could be achieved when traditional annual food crops produced with current agriculture practices are replaced by dedicated perennial energy crops. The emission of greenhouse gases could be reduced by reduced carbon dioxide emissions from organic soils, by reduced nitrous oxide emissions caused by the use of fertilisers and through accumulation of soil carbon in mineral soils, which also leads to increased soil fertility. Nutrient leaching could be reduced by using energy crop cultivations as buffer strips along open streams and wind erosion could be reduced by using Salix plantations as shelter belts. Cultivation of Salix and energy grass can also be used to purify municipal waste, such as waste water, landfill leachate, and sewage sludge. Furthermore, the content of heavy metals in the soil can be reduced through Salix cultivation. The biodiversity is estimated to be almost unchanged, or slightly increased in open farmland. These environmental benefits, which could be achieved on up to 60% of current Swedish arable land and last for 25 years or more, will increase the value of the energy crops. The economic value of these benefits is calculated in Part II of the analysis, which is presented in a second paper.     

Does increasing energy or electricity consumption improve quality of life in industrial nations?

Among the world's nations, per capita energy and electricity consumption is highly correlated with diverse indicators of quality of life. This is often interpreted to mean that additional energy and electricity consumption causes improvements in life quality. Prior analyses of cross-sectional data question this interpretation for industrial nations that already have high per capita energy consumption. The present analysis with longitudinal data shows that among industrial nations, increases in per capita energy and electricity consumption over the past three decades are not associated with corresponding improvements in quality of life.     

Wind energy in Brazil—present and future

In Brazil, the power generation is predominantly hydroelectric, corresponding approximately to 91.4% of the installed capacity. The energy crisis in the Brazilian electric sector meant the end of the centralized generation and the launching of a decentralized generation approach aiming to add to the existing plants through small- and medium power capacity. Such a condition matches the wind energy characteristic profile. In northeastern Brazil is one of the most promising areas for wind exploitation, where the largest wind speed occurs exactly when the rate of flow in Sao Francisco river, which accounts for all the power energy supply of the northeast region, is low. Thus, during this critical period, the wind farms can produce electrical energy, saving the Sao Francisco waters and on top of that with no environmental risk, thus contributing to the overall reduction of CO₂ emission in the atmosphere. Because of those factors, the National Electrical Energy Agency (ANEEL), the Brazilian regulatory authority, has approved 77 projects for construction of wind farms, attracting foreign investment, besides the installation of wind turbine industries. The increasing use of the wind energy is prevailing over the absence of a specific legislation for the sector, but the National Congress has already taken some measures such as the act bill no. 2905/2000 and the temporary measure no. 14/2001.     

The development and application practice of wind–solar energy hybrid generation systems in China

China is the largest developing country in the world. At present, more and more energy demand gives immense pressure to Chinese government. The inappropriate energy structure must be improved by Chinese government in order to achieve the sustainable development of economy and society. Development and application of renewable energy, such as wind energy, solar energy, biomass energy, etc., have been regarded by the government and the local people in the past 10 years, and more and more actual examples have been established, which are supported by government and plants in China. It is well known that there are abundant wind and solar resources in China. This paper presents the distribution zone and development and application practice status in China. However, a common drawback is existing in the stand-alone wind energy and solar energy generating power system, which is the unpredictable output electric power, and the output power depends on the unpredictable weather and climatic changes. Fortunately, the wind–solar hybrid generation system can partially overcome the problems. The conventional structure and key technology of stand-alone wind–solar hybrid generating system, the current status and outlook of wind–solar hybrid energy system are presented in the paper, for example, the city road lighting system, distributed generation, photovoltaic (PV) water pumping for irrigation, etc. At the end, the policies and laws of China central government and local governments are described, and the development barriers and recommendations are introduced.     

Non-equilibrium molecular dynamics study of thermal energy transport in Au–SAM–Au junctions

Non-equilibrium molecular dynamics (NEMD) simulations were performed on Au–SAM (self-assembly monolayer)–Au junctions to study the thermal energy transport across the junctions. Thermal conductance of the Au–SAM interfaces was calculated. Temperature effects, simulated external pressure effects, SAM molecule coverage effects and Au–SAM bond strength effects on the interfacial thermal conductance were studied. It was found that the interfacial thermal conductance increased with temperature increase at temperatures lower than 250 K, but it did not have large changes at temperatures from 250 to 400 K. Such a trend was found to be similar to experimental observations on similar junctions. The simulated external pressure did not affect the interfacial thermal conductance. SAM molecule coverage and Au–SAM bond strength were found to significantly affect on the thermal conductance. The vibration densities of state (VDOS) were calculated to explore the mechanism of thermal energy transport. Interfacial thermal resistance was found mainly due to the limited population of low-frequency vibration modes of the SAM molecule. Ballistic energy transport inside the SAM molecules was confirmed, and the anharmonicity played an important role in energy transport across the junctions. A heat pulse was imposed on the junction substrate, and heat dissipation inside the junction was studied. Analysis of the junction response to the heat pulse showed that the Au–SAM interfacial thermal resistance was much larger than the Au substrate and SAM resistances separately. This work showed that both the Au substrate and SAM molecules transported thermal energy efficiently, and it was the Au–SAM interfaces that dominated the thermal energy transport across the Au–SAM–Au junctions.     

Does OPEC news sentiment influence stock returns of energy firms in the United States?

This paper utilises commodity-specific news sentiment data on the Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) collected from Thomson Reuters News Analytics in the period 2003–2014 and examines the impact of foreign news sentiment on the financial performance of domestic firms in the energy sector. We find that in the US market, negative news on OPEC positively influences the stock returns of the US-listed firms. The effects of negative news sentiment on OPEC dominate our results. These results are robust in different subsectors of the oil and gas industry and in alternative specifications of oil prices and market volatility. We show that the effect is conditional on market risks and the types of news announcements made. The effect from negative news is stronger in periods of higher reserves, exports and production. However, at times of low consumer confidence and high imports, a positive OPEC news announcement negatively influences a US-listed energy firm's stock return. In the context of hedging and risk mitigation, our findings have important policy implications for investors and traders in the energy sector.