Soy sauce odour induces and enhances saltiness perception

Developing products with reduced sodium content is one alternative for consumers interested in reducing their daily sodium intake. In this research, we determined whether soy sauce odour could induce and enhance salty taste perception in salt solution models. The sensory threshold technique (ASTM E679‐04, the ascending forced choice method of limits) was used to determine thresholds at 25 °C. Group best estimate threshold geometric means of soy sauce odour were expressed as parts‐per‐billion (ppb, v/v). At 28.45 ppb (recognition threshold), soy sauce odour could induce salty taste in 0.03 mm NaCl solution (in which salty taste was undetectable without soy sauce odour) and at 122.71 ppb (difference threshold), it enhanced salty taste (i.e. saltier) perception in 20 mm NaCl solution. Through the odour–taste interaction concept, this study demonstrated that the soy sauce odour could induce and enhance salty taste perception, which could be applied in the development of reduced‐sodium foods.     

A preliminary study: saltiness and sodium content of aqueous extracts from plants and marine animal shells

To develop a salt substitute with low sodium content, the water-soluble components of seaweed, kelp, clamshell, oyster shell, semen cassiae, cuttlefish bone, inula flower, Arabia cowry shell, and sanna leaf were extracted with water. The aqueous extracts of nine species of plants and marine animal shells were obtained after drying the plants and shells at 105 °C until achieving a constant weight. The hedonic scale test revealed that the clamshell and cuttlefish bone aqueous extracts tasted distinctly salty. The result of the degree of difference test showed that the 1 % clamshell extract solution (m/v) and 0.6 % cuttlefish bone extract solution (m/v) both had equivalent saltiness of 0.6 % NaCl (m/v). In contrast, the sodium content in the cuttlefish bone extract solution was 27 % less than that in a NaCl solution of the same degree of saltiness. Therefore, a novel salt substitute will be developed in future studies in accordance with the principles of bionics and a deep understanding of the salty taste interactions among key salty components in the cuttlefish bone extract.     

Use of Consumer Acceptability as a Tool to Determine the Level of Sodium Reduction: A Case Study on Beef Soup Substituted With Potassium Chloride and Soy‐Sauce Odor

In this study, consumer acceptability was considered as a tool of reducing sodium rather than just using it as a final examination of the successfulness of the substitution. This study consisted of 4 experimental steps. First, by gradually reducing the concentrations of NaCl, consumer rejection threshold (CRT) of NaCl in beef soup was examined. Then, the amount of KCl that can increase preference was examined in 2 low sodium beef soups, with sodium concentrations slightly above or below the CRT. Relative saltiness of various KCl and NaCl/KCl mixtures were also measured. Finally, consumers evaluated acceptability and intensities of sensory characteristics for 9 beef soup samples that differed with respect to NaCl content and/or KCl content with/without addition of salty‐congruent odor (soy‐sauce odor). The results showed that in the “above CRT” system, consumer acceptability as well as sensory profile of low sodium beef soup substituted using KCl had similar profile to the control although saltiness was not fully recovered, whereas in the “below CRT” system, consumer acceptability was not recovered using KCl solely as a substitute. Potential of using salty‐congruent odor as a final touch to induce salty taste was observed; however, the results inferred the importance of having almost no artificialness in the odor and having harmony with the final product when using it as a strategy to substitute sodium. Overall, the results of the study implied the importance of considering consumer acceptability when approaching sodium reduction to better understand the potentials of the sodium substitutes and salty‐congruent odor.     

Analysis of binary taste-taste interactions of MSG,lactic acid,and NaCl by temporal dominance of sensations

Temporal dominance of sensations (TDS) is a relatively novel sensory evaluation technique that measures the temporal evolution of sensory perception. The sensory properties of food or drink products have been described by TDS; however, basic sensory data on TDS are still lacking. We analyzed TDS data for solutions of three basic tastes (umami, salty, and sour) and their binary combinations. The duration of TDS for the main taste of each type of solution (monosodium glutamate [MSG] for umami, sodium chloride [NaCl] for saltiness, and lactic acid for sourness) increased in a concentration-dependent manner. In addition, the duration of the umami taste of MSG was longer than that of MSG/inosine 5′-monophosphate solution with an umami taste of equivalent intensity. The duration of NaCl saltiness was increased by coexistence with MSG and decreased by coexistence with lactic acid. On the other hand, the duration of the umami taste of MSG was suppressed by coexistence with NaCl but not lactic acid, while the duration of the sour taste of lactic acid was suppressed by MSG but not NaCl. These findings provide novel insight into the temporal sequence of basic taste perception during food consumption.     

Increasing Oil Concentration Affects Consumer Perception and Physical Properties of Mayonnaise‐type Spreads Containing KCl

Reducing sodium intakes remains a global challenge for the food industry. KCl is a potential salt substitute but imparts bitterness when used at high concentrations. Little is known about how oil concentrations (OC) affect consumers’ perception of saltiness and bitterness in emulsion products such as mayonnaise containing KCl. We evaluated consumers’ perception and physical properties of mayonnaise‐type spreads at various oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations. Consumers (N = 306) evaluated saltiness, bitterness, overall taste liking (OTL) and purchase intent (PI). Viscosity, pH, water activity, and consistency/texture were also measured. Oil and tastant (NaCl or KCl) concentrations had significant effects on saltiness, viscosity, and pH. As OC increased, saltiness intensity slightly decreased for spreads. Increasing oil concentration increased viscosity. Generally, spreads containing KCl had higher bitterness and pH than spreads containing NaCl. All spreads containing KCl were penalized for being “too bitter.” PI was affected by OTL for all spreads but OC was also a significant factor in the purchase decision of spreads containing NaCl. This study demonstrated that increasing OC affected consumers’ taste perception (saltiness and bitterness) and spreads’ physical properties including pH and viscosity.     

The associations between genetics,salt taste perception and salt intake in young adults

Food liking is one of the main determinants of food intake. Salt taste perception and preference, that play a role in liking of salt, may be genetically determined, although research in humans is scarce. The aim of this study was to explore the associations between genetics, salt taste perception, preference, self-reported salt habit and intake. The participants were young (18–35 years) and healthy adults (32 males and 63 females). Salt taste thresholds were determined with British Standard ISO3972:2011 methodology and salt taste preference by ratings of saltiness and pleasantness of tomato soup with salt concentrations reflecting salt content in foods. Self-reported salt habit was determined by asking participants how salty they usually eat their food and salt intake with two 24-hour 5-step multiple pass recalls. Genotyping for variants in the SCNN1B rs239345 and TRPV1 rs8065080 was performed. Participants homozygous for the minor allele of the rs8065080 had lower ratings of saltiness (p = 0.008) and higher ratings of pleasantness of soup (p = 0.027) when compared to major allele carriers. Preference for salt in soup was associated with salt habit (p = 0.003) and participants with high salt preference had higher salt intake compared to those with low salt preference (2236 ± 261 vs. 1543 ± 107 mg/1000 kcal, p = 0.017). TRPV1 rs8065080 may play a role in salt taste perception and preference, which should be confirmed in a larger sample size study. Hedonic appeal of salty food should be considered when providing personalised advice to change this behaviour.     

Taste perception and purchase intent of oil‐in‐water spreads: effects of oil types and salt (NaCl or KCl) concentrations

Associations of sodium intake with heart‐related problems are creating awareness towards reducing sodium. Potassium chloride (KCl), a substitute for sodium chloride (NaCl), has the disadvantage of imparting bitterness at high concentrations. We evaluated physical characteristics, taste perception and purchase intent of KCl and NaCl in oil‐in‐water spreads/emulsions composed by olive, rice bran and soya bean oils. Consumers (N = 300) evaluated saltiness/bitterness of emulsions prepared with 65% oil, and NaCl (0.5% and 1.0%) or KCl (0.75% and 1.5%). Olive oil spreads (104.07–107.43 Pa s) had higher viscosity compared to other spreads (59.16–74.96 Pa s). Type of oil had significant effects on bitterness, overall taste liking and viscosity. Taste liking decreased due to bitterness of olive oil spreads (mean drop=1.72–2.43). Purchase intent was positively associated with saltiness and pH and increased with oil claims (increase = 1.3%–22.1%) compared to sodium claims (increase = 0.0%–12.9%). These findings are useful for understanding taste perception of emulsions.     

含KCl、氨基酸的低钠盐替代食盐对风干草鱼加工过程中理化特性的影响

本试验以新鲜草鱼为原料,食盐组为对照组,研究不同比例低钠盐替代食盐对风干草鱼加工过程中背侧肌和腹侧肌理化特性以及感官品质的影响。结果显示:干燥结束后,75%和100%低钠盐替代组的水分含量显著高于其他组(p<0.05),且背侧肌的水分含量和水分活度均显著高于腹侧肌(p<0.05)。低钠盐替代组的pH、色泽和质构与食盐组的变化趋势相似。75%低钠盐替代制备的产品咸味纯正,无异味,具有较高的接受度,且背侧肌和腹侧肌钠含量分别降低了31.88%和47.64%。低钠盐部分替代食盐制备的风干草鱼在保证理化和感官特性不受影响的基础上,极大地降低了钠含量,具有较好的应用前景。     

Ham Particle Size Influences Saltiness Perception in Flans

One major issue of the food industry is reducing sodium content while maintaining food acceptability and liking. Despite extensive research in this field, little has been published on real complex food products. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the size of particles, a parameter easily adjusted in food processing, could influence the salty taste of low‐salt food product. We thus evaluated the effect of ham particle sizes (4 levels, including a zero level) on salt perception and the consumer liking of flans varying in their overall salt concentrations (low‐ and high‐salt content). Two consumer panels, composed of 107 and 77 subjects, rated, respectively, the saltiness of and liking for the developed flans (8 samples). The outcomes of this study indicated first, that the addition of ham to flans increased the salty taste perception and second, that a decrease in ham particle size (ground ham) increased the perceived saltiness. Moreover, low‐ and high‐salt flans were equally liked, demonstrating that food manufacturers could reduce the salt contents (here, by over 15%) while maintaining consumer acceptability through the manipulation of the size of the salt‐providing particles.     

Encapsulated sodium supplementation of 4 weeks does not alter salt taste preferences in a controlled low sodium and low potassium diet

Preference for saltiness is learned by oral exposure to salt taste; however, some data suggest a role for bodily sodium and potassium levels on salt taste preferences as well. The objective was to investigate whether encapsulated sodium and potassium supplementation lead to altered salt taste responses among adults with high blood pressure on a low sodium and low potassium diet. Twenty-six participants with untreated upper-range prehypertension or stage 1 hypertension were on a fully controlled low sodium and low potassium diet (both targeted at 2 g/day) for 13 weeks. Participants received capsules with sodium (3 g/d), potassium (3 g/d), or placebo, for 4 weeks each, in randomized order in a double blind crossover design. Sensory evaluation was done before and after each supplementation period and involved ratings of pleasantness and intensity in different salt (NaCl) concentrations in food and water, desire-to-eat salty food, and detection threshold for NaCl. Neither sodium supplementation nor potassium supplementation led to alterations in salt taste responses in food and water, and did not affect detection threshold (P = 0.59). There was no clear role for sodium or potassium supplementation on desire-to-eat salty food. In addition, we did not find effects of reduced oral exposure to salt over weeks, through the sodium-reduced diet, on salt taste preferences, in contrast to earlier studies. In conclusion, the results of this study suggest preference for saltiness is independent of changes in bodily sodium or potassium levels.     

Increasing saltiness perception through perceptual constancy created by expectation

Reducing salt levels in food products is an important motivation for research, as the general intake of salt by consumers is too high. Finding strategies for salt reduction, while maintaining salty taste of products remains a big challenge. In this paper we show the effect that a perceptual expectation of a taste can have on subsequent taste perception, in the same product. A perceptual expectation is based on previous experience, memory, or other information from the product. Our hypothesis is that, if a product looks the same, smells the same and has the same texture as the product one is used to eat, small variations in taste will go unnoticed. In a consumer study, we investigated if the expectation, or implicit assumption, that saltiness remains constant across mouthfuls, can indeed reduce the perception of variation in salt concentration. We were able to demonstrate the existence of such an effect. We found that perceptual expectation, based on the first bite, can influence saltiness perception.     

Cross-modal interactions between taste and smell: Odour-induced saltiness enhancement depends on salt level

In recent years, health concerns related to salt have led to extensive research on low-salt foods. One major remaining issue is to reduce sodium content while still providing the salty fix, to maintain food appreciation, acceptance and choice. Using well-selected odours has been proposed to compensate for sodium chloride reduction in food, due to the cross-modal interactions between odour and taste. However, interactions between taste and odour, with regards to saltiness, remain poorly investigated. Moreover, although a few studies have assessed the influences of odour and sweet supra-threshold intensity on cross-modal interactions, none focused directly on how they influence saltiness. Therefore, the aim of the present study is to determine if the level of saltiness, i.e., the concentration of sodium chloride in aqueous solutions, influences odour-induced saltiness enhancement (OISE). A panel of 64 untrained panellists evaluated the saltiness of water solutions including salt and a tasteless odorant. Following a full factorial design, three concentrations of salt were used in conjunction with three aroma conditions. The results confirmed that OISE depends on odour-taste congruency but also clearly indicated that OISE depends on salt concentration (salty intensity): the saltiness of a low- or medium-salt-content solution increased significantly when subjects perceived simultaneously the congruent sardine aroma, but OISE was no more significant with high-saltiness solutions. This effect has to be taken into account when using OISE as a compensation strategy in low-salt food.     

植物乳杆菌对干腌马鲛鱼降盐增鲜效果的影响

以植物乳杆菌替代部份食盐,制备降盐增鲜风味的干腌马鲛鱼.通过感官评价和呈味物质含量的比较分析可知,以植物乳杆菌代替50％食盐的干腌马鲛鱼样品的咸、鲜和厚味均显著高于对照组1(添加4％食盐腌制的干腌马鲛鱼)、对照组2(添加2％食盐腌制的干腌马鲛鱼)(P<0.05),说明植物乳杆菌的添加可以产生大量的鲜、厚味物质,同时还可...     

Using Fish Sauce as a Substitute for Sodium Chloride in Culinary Sauces and Effects on Sensory Properties

Historically, fish sauce has been a standard condiment and ingredient in various Southeast Asian cuisines. Moreover, fish sauce imparts umami taste, which may enhance perceived saltiness in food. This quality suggests that fish sauce may be used as a partial substitute for sodium chloride (NaCl) in food preparation, which may present a valuable option for health‐conscious and salt‐restricted consumers. However, the degree to which NaCl can be decreased in food products without compromising taste and consumer acceptance has not been determined. We hypothesized that NaCl content in food may be reduced by partial replacement with fish sauce without diminishing palatability and consumer acceptance. Preparations of 3 types of food were assessed to test this hypothesis: chicken broth (n = 72); tomato sauce (n = 73); and coconut curry (n = 70). In the first session, the percentage of NaCl that could be replaced with fish sauce without a significant change in overall taste intensity was determined for each type of food using the 2‐Alternative Forced Choice method. In the second session, subjects rated 5 samples for each food with varying NaCl and/or fish sauce content on 3 sensory attributes: deliciousness; taste intensity; and saltiness. Our results demonstrate that NaCl reduction was possible in chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry at 25%, 16%, and 10%, respectively, without a significant loss (P < 0.05) in deliciousness and overall taste intensity. These results suggest that it is possible to replace NaCl in foods with fish sauce without reducing overall taste intensity and consumer acceptance.     

Taste properties of potassium chloride alone and in mixtures with sodium chloride using a check-all-that-apply method

As consumers try to reduce their sodium consumption for health purposes, the food industry seeks ways to reduce the sodium content in products while maintaining palatability. One potential solution for lowering sodium content is using potassium chloride (KCl) as a substitute. However, many people find KCl to have unpleasant off-tastes, which limits its effectiveness to replace sodium chloride (NaCl). This study examined the taste properties of KCl using a check-all-that-apply (CATA) ballot. The objectives were to see which terms people use to describe KCl and in what ways this changes in various combinations with NaCl. Panelists were served mixtures of varying NaCl and KCl concentrations, and evaluated them using a set of predetermined terms on a CATA ballot. Frequency counts were taken, and binomial and McNemar tests were performed to see which stimuli changed the most between samples. Results showed that adding KCl increased salt perception slightly, and salty was chosen more frequently when in combination with NaCl. Adding NaCl in a mixture with KCl decreases unpleasant side tastes associated with KCl, such as bitter, chemical, and metallic.     

食盐替代物研究进展

高血压、心脏病等疾病均与摄入过量的食盐(NaCl)有关.降低钠离了摄入量同时保证咸度的食盐替代物的开发对人们饮食健康具有重要意义.木文主要从开发食盐替代物的必要性出发,对咸味肽、非钠盐类及其他食盐替代物的研究现状进行概述,并对食盐替代物的发展前景作出展望.     

钠盐内注-外涂添加对减钠盐传统培根滋味的影响

基于培根的减盐化加工工艺,在钠盐使用量1.5％水平下,研究内注-外涂钠盐添加方式对减钠盐培根钠离子释放量、游离氨基酸含量、5'-呈味核苷酸含量、等效鲜味浓度及滋味感知的影响.结果表明:内注-外涂添加方式可减少减钠盐生培根烤制期间5'-呈味核苷酸的损失,增加游离氨基酸的释放,提高其等效鲜味浓度,显著加快培根咀嚼过程早期钠...