High Performance Steel: Research Front—Historical Account of Research Activities

This paper provides a summary of the major research studies conducted or being conducted in the U.S., to address design issues related to use of high performance steel (HPS) in bridge construction. Emphasis of the paper is on the work related to HPS-485W steel, which has specified minimum yield strength of 485 MPa (70 ksi). Design issues that are addressed in this paper include (1) flexural capacity of compact and noncompact HPS sections in negative bending; (2) issues related to ductility of HPS composite girders in the positive sections (this section presents a simplified ductility check for composite plate girders); (3) tensile ductility of HPS plates; (4) shear capacity of the hybrid steel plate girders; (5) live load deflections; and (6) brief overview of the work that is underway to develop innovative bridge configurations capable of incorporating the advantages of HPS.     

合金元素对桥梁结构钢HPS70W组织性能的影响

通过添加不同含量的Nb、Mo、V,研究了合金元素对桥梁结构钢板HPS70W力学性能、金相组织和第二相粒子析出的影响。试验结果表明:合金元素Mo、V对桥梁结构钢板HPS70W没有起到明显的析出强化作用,合金元素Nb对桥梁结构钢板HPS70W低温韧性、强度和塑性有显著的作用。     

铌对美标桥梁结构钢板性能的影响

通过向桥梁结构钢板HPS70W中添加不同含量的Nb元素,研究了合金元素Nb对桥梁结构钢板的力学性能、金相组织和第二相粒子析出的影响。试验结果表明,合金元素Nb对桥梁结构钢板HPS70W低温韧性、强度和塑性有显著影响。     

美国高性能桥梁用钢研发现状

介绍了美国高性能桥梁用钢研发现状,包括其组织机构、研发历程、用钢特点以及生产和应用现状,并对其开发的HPS 50W、HPS 70W和HPS 100W系列钢种的化学成分和力学性能进行了对比、分析.     

Characterization of Material Properties of HPS-485W (70 W) TMCP for Bridge Girder Applications

There are currently two methods of production for A 709 Grade HPS-485W (70 W)—quenching and tempering (Q&T) and thermomechanical controlled processing (TMCP). The TMCP enables plates to be rolled in longer lengths than is possible with Q&T; however, because of its recent introduction and a lack of material testing, relatively little is known concerning the effect of this new production method upon the intraplate variability of both tensile strength and toughness. Data from 96 tensile tests show that yield and ultimate strengths of HPS-485W (70 W) TMCP may be dependent upon plate thickness and orientation. The average yield strength was found to be lower than the 485 MPa (70 ksi) limit, while the average ultimate strength was within acceptable limits. Seventy-five Charpy V-Notch (CVN) specimens were tested, and all met the 48 J at ?23°C (35 ft-lb at ?10°F) AASHTO Zone III requirement for minimum toughness. Overall it was seen that HPS 485W (70 W) TMCP shows promise for bridge girder applications, but thicker plates do not currently meet all the ASTM A 709 standards, and should be reevaluated before being used in bridge construction on a large scale.     

Assessment of AASHTO LRFD Specifications for Hybrid HPS 690W Steel I-Girders

This paper details research conducted to determine the applicability of the 2nd and 3rd editions of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications to hybrid I-girders fabricated from high-performance steel (HPS) 690W (100?ksi) flanges and HPS 480W (70?ksi) webs. Specifically, the scope of this paper is to evaluate the applicability of the negative moment capacity prediction equations for noncomposite I-girders subjected to moment gradient. This evaluation is carried out using three-dimensional nonlinear finite-element analysis to determine the ultimate bending capacity of a comprehensive suite of representative hybrid girders. In addition, a design study was conducted to assess the economical feasibility of incorporating HPS 690W (100?ksi) in traditional bridge applications. This was accomplished by designing a series of I-girders with varying ratios of span length to girder depth (L/D ratios) for a representative three-span continuous bridge. Results of this study indicate that both the 2nd and 3rd editions of the specifications may be used to conservatively predict the negative bending capacity of hybrid HPS 690W (100?ksi) girders, however increased accuracy results from use of the 3rd edition of the AASHTO LRFD Specifications. Thus, it is concluded that the restriction placed on girders fabricated from steel with a nominal yield strength greater than 480?MPa (70?ksi) can be safely removed. Additionally, results of the design study demonstrate that significant weight saving can result from the use of hybrid HPS 100W girders in negative bending regions, and that hybrid HPS 690W/HPS 480W girders may be ideally suited to sites with superstructure depth restrictions.     

高性能耐候桥梁用钢HPS70W的生产实践

通过使用TMCP工艺生产高性能耐候桥梁用钢HPS70W的生产实践,主要讨论了两种不同厚度钢板的生产工艺和组织性能,该钢完全符合或超过美国标准《桥梁结构钢ASTM A709》的高性能桥梁用钢HPS70W的要求。     

Finite-Element Modeling of Heat-Curved I-Girders

Heat curving is extensively used for fabricating structural steel girders for bridges. Current American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) specifications limit usage to Grade 345 steel (Fy = 50?ksi), ruling out Grade 485 (Fy = 70?ksi) high performance steel (HPS). This paper presents results of a three-dimensional finite-element analysis to assess the applicability of existing AASHTO provisions for HPS 485W sections. The finite-element package NASTRAN was used to conduct the analysis and the model calibrated against experimental data obtained from full-scale tests conducted previously by U.S. Steel Corporation. Comparisons include curvatures, lateral deformations, and residual stresses. The calibrated model was used to predict the performance of an identical HPS girder subjected to the same heat/cool cycles. The three-dimensional analysis predicted smaller curvatures as compared with Grade 250 (Fy = 36?ksi) or Grade 345 (Fy = 50?ksi) steel. Comparable curvatures could be obtained by using higher temperatures.     

Simplified Moment Redistribution of Hybrid HPS 485W Bridge Girders in Negative Bending

Simplified moment redistribution procedures based on shakedown have recently been approved by AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (AASHTO 2004). These procedures are currently only applicable for homogeneous girders, and thus, the objective of this study is to evaluate whether these procedures can be further applied for hybrid HPS 485W girders. A parametric study is carried out using validated three-dimensional finite-element (FE) analyses to study the inelastic behavior of hybrid HPS 485W girders in negative bending for this purpose. The effective plastic moments obtained from the FE studies are compared with those from the proposed prediction equations, where good correlation is observed. A design example of a three-span slab-on-girder bridge with hybrid HPS 485W girders using both elastic design and the simplified moment redistribution procedures is also presented, where it is shown that the use of moment redistribution procedures results in a negative bending section that is 13% lighter than the corresponding elastic design.     

高性能桥梁用钢HPS70W的研制开发

介绍了通过向钢中添加Cr、Mo等合金和采用TMCP工艺,开发生产符合或超过美国标准《桥梁结构钢ASTMA709》的高性能桥梁用钢HPS70W,该钢具有良好的热影响区硬度和焊缝低冷裂纹敏感性以及良好的焊接性能和低温韧性,是现代化桥梁用钢的优秀材料。     

Fatigue and Fracture of Steel Girders

This paper presents an overview of materials selection, design, and detailing of steel girders for fatigue and fracture limit states. The historical context of the fracture control plan for bridges is presented. A discussion of fracture toughness of structural steel and weld metal is presented along with typical Charpy and fracture-toughness test data, including the new high-performance steel A709 HPS 485W. Fatigue of cover plate details and distortion-induced cracking are discussed. Methods of dealing with variable-amplitude loading are then compared to test data.     

Fatigue Resistance of HPS-485W (70?W) Continuous Plate with Punched Holes

Twenty-nine specimens were tested to investigate the fatigue resistance of high-performance steel (HPS-485W) (70?W) continuous plate with punched holes. Specimen thickness, hole diameter, and method used for creating the holes were varied to examine their effect upon fatigue resistance of punched connections utilizing high performance steel. Eight of the 29 specimens were drilled or subpunched and reamed specimens, all of which rated as Category B details. The remaining 21 specimens had punched holes and rated considerably below a Category B. Results from this investigation suggest that current restrictions mandated by some state DOTs concerning punching holes are not overly restrictive when HPS-485W (70?W) is utilized. Performance of drilled and subpunched and reamed specimens met (or exceeded) 2004 AASHTO requirements for Category B details.     

Strength and Ductility of HPS-100W I-Girders in Negative Flexure

In current AASHTO LRFD bridge design specifications, the nominal flexural strength of I-girders made from steel with a yield stress >345 MPa (>50 ksi) is limited to the yield moment rather than the plastic moment and inelastic design procedures are not permitted. With the recent development of high performance steel (HPS) for highway bridges, the need for these restrictions should be revisited. This paper focuses on I-girders made from HPS-100W steel. Two I-girders were designed with HPS-100W steel according to the AASHTO LRFD specifications, neglecting current restrictions related to the use of high strength steels. The I-girders were tested to failure under three-point loading, which simulated the condition of negative flexure at the pier of a continuous-span bridge. The flexural strength and ductility of the HPS-100W I-girders are compared with the strength and ductility anticipated by the AASHTO LRFD specifications for conventional steel I-girders. In addition, the results of relevant previous tests of conventional steel I-girders are summarized and compared with the HPS-100W I-girder test results.     

Corrosion Resistance of High Performance Weathering Steel for Bridge Building Applications

 The mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and microstructures of high performance steel (HPS) was investigated by tensile testing machine, Charpy V-Notch (CVN) testing machine, cyclic immersion corrosion tester, XRD, optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and electron probe micro-analyzer (EPMA). The results showed that significant differences existed in the tensile strength, yield strength and impact toughness between HPS and PCS. After 72 h cyclic immersion accelerated corrosion test, the inner rust layer on HPS was composed of α-FeOOH phase and denser than that on PCS that was a mixture of α-FeOOH and Fe3O4. The rust formed on HPS provides better protection and HPS has lower corrosion rates than PCS. Copper and chromium in HPS enrich in the rust layer and enhance the compactness of the rust layer. Based on the results of the accelerated corrosion tests and rust layer analysis, the roles of Cu and Cr against corrosion are discussed, providing HPS with chemical specification which has been industrially successful to produce weathering steel for bridge structure.     

Fatigue Resistance of HPS-485 W (70 W) Welded Butt-Splice Connections Using Narrow Gap Improved Electroslag Welding

The writers investigated the performance of narrow gap improved electroslag weld (NGI-ESW) procedures in welded butt splices using high-performance steel grade HPS-485 W (70 W) through comparison against similar specimens fabricated using submerged arc welding (SAW). Five NGI-ESW and five SAW specimens were tested in fatigue at very high stress ranges, and all achieved run-out at or above 2 million cycles. Two each of the specimens created using SAW and NGI-ESW were tested an additional 3 million cycles; the NGI-ESW specimens did not experience fracture, whereas one SAW specimen failed in the base metal and another completed the additional cycles without failure. All intact specimens were statically tested to failure and results were compared. All 10 specimens performed considerably better than predicted by the AASHTO (2007) fatigue life equation. The NGI-ESW specimens performed at least as well as the SAW specimens under fatigue and static testing, suggesting that inclusion of the NGI-ESW process in AWS D1.5 may be appropriate when used with HPS-485 W (70 W). Additionally, testing supports extension of current code provisions to the use of NGI-ESW in fracture-critical applications.     

Effect of Carbon Content on Mechanical Properties and Weather Resistance of High Performance Bridge Steels

The influence of carbon content on the mechanical properties of high yield strength bridge steel has been in-vestigated. The results show that the excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance are obtained for the steel with carbon content of 0.03%-0.05% (mass percent). According to the results, a new weathering bridge steel plate with carbon content of 0.045% (mass percent)has been developed. The appropriate controlled cooling process should be taken due to the results of CCT (continuous cooling transformation)and TTT (time-temperature-transformation)to ensure both microstructure and mechanical properties. CCT curve of the newly developed steel shows that when accelerated cooling speed is higher than 5℃/s, the intermediate transformation products can be formed. The TTT curve displays that the intermediate transformation temperature ranges from 600 to 530℃. Yield strength of the newly developed steels reaches 500 MPa, and their elongation and toughness are excellent.     

Effect of carbon content on the mechanical properties and weather resistance of high performance bridge steels

 The influence of carbon content on the mechanical properties of high yield strength bridge steel has been investigated. The results show that, the excellent mechanical properties and corrosion resistance were obtained for the steel with carbon content between 0.03 wt.%-0.05 wt.%. According to these results, a weathering bridge plate steel with 0.045 wt.% carbon content has been developed. The appropriate control cooling process has to be taken due to the results of CCT and TTT to ensure both microstructure and mechanical properties. Continuous cooling transformation (CCT) curve of the new developing steel presents that when accelerated cooled is faster than 5℃/s, the intermediate transformation products can be formed. The isothermal transformation test (TTT) displays that the intermediate transformation temperature range in 600℃~530℃. Yield strength of the new developing steels reached 500MPa, the elongation and toughness of which are both excellent.     

浅谈桥梁钢标准的发展

从标准角度简述了国内外桥梁钢的发展概况,桥梁钢经历了“碳钢-低合金钢-低碳微合金钢-低碳贝氏体钢”的发展阶段,并提出国内桥梁钢标准的发展方向。     

W4Mo2Cr4VNb钢的组织和力学性能

 由于钨、钼、钒合金元素价格昂贵,因而导致含较多这类合金元素的钢的成本较高。合理运用高速钢的合金化理论,研究出了一种低合金高速钢——W4Mo2Cr4VNb。此钢的(W+Mo+V)含量比通用高速钢W9低很多,而且通过调整碳含量及加入价格较便宜的微合金元素铌,使该钢具有较好的综合力学性能和较低的成本。文章研究了W4Mo2Cr4VNb钢的组织和力学性能。