CHEMICAL CHARACTERIZATION OF DIFFERENT LINES OF DAUCUS CAROTA L. ROOTS

Carrot lines grown under commercial conditions in central Washington State in 1995 and in 1996 were analyzed for quality parameters. Significant differences (p<0.05) of refractive index, color, and volatile terpenes between carrot lines were observed. High correlations between a*/b* (r²= 0.79) or hue angle (r²= ‐0.78) and the sum of concentrations of α‐ and β‐carotenes in carrot juice were observed. The concentrations of α‐ and β‐pinene, myrcene, α‐ and γ‐terpinene, limonene, p‐cymene, terpinolene, caryophyllene, bornyl acetate, and 2‐nonenal varied depending on the carrot line. Lines with the highest ^oBrix to terpinolene ratios indicating a higher degrees of sweetness (and lower bitterness) were Coral II, HMX 8287, and (2566 × 6274) × 9304. Identification of the differences that exist among carrot lines would allow for selection of carrot lines that possess desirable quality attributes.     

High‐anthocyanin strawberries through cultivar selection

BACKGROUND: Diets high in fruit and vegetables are known to have significant health benefits. This is in part due to the presence of phytochemicals, which possess potential protective health benefits. This study focuses on the ability of strawberries to be bred for higher anthocyanin content. This is a major contributor to the characteristic colour and nutritional value of ripe strawberries, together with phenolic acids, ascorbic acid and total antioxidant capacity. RESULTS: Anthocyanins in five commercial strawberry cultivars and three breeding lines were assessed. This led to the discovery of one breeding line (BL 2006‐221) as an exceptional source of anthocyanins (～1 g kg^?1 fresh weight), with approximately double the levels of current commercial cultivars. Temperature was shown to influence anthocyanin extraction, with 40 °C being the best extraction temperature using the accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) method. Hue angle and anthocyanin concentration showed a good correlation (r² = 0.69). CONCLUSION: The new breeding line BL 2006‐221 has the potential to be used in the development of phytochemically rich strawberry cultivars. Using hue angle as a screening tool for total anthocyanin concentration and extraction of anthocyanins from strawberries by ASE at 40 °C would support such cultivar development. © 2012 Commonwealth of Australia     

Carotenoids in different body components of Indian shrimps

The quantitative and qualitative distribution of carotenoids in different body components of four species of shrimp (Penaeus monodon, Penaeus indicus, Metapenaeus dobsonii and Parapenaeopsis stylifera) harvested from shallow waters off the Indian coast was assessed. The highest total carotenoid contents were observed in the head (153.1 µg g^?1) and carapace (104.7 µg g^?1) of P stylifera, while the body components of P indicus showed the lowest carotenoid levels. Astaxanthin and its mono‐ and diesters were the major carotenoids (63.5–92.2% of total carotenoids) present in the carotenoid extracts from the shrimps, while the extracts contained low levels of β‐carotene and zeaxanthin. The major fatty acids in the carotenoid extracts were palmitic, heptadecanoic, palmitoleic, stearic and oleic acids. Copyright © 2004 Society of Chemical Industry     

Variation in the carotenoid composition of acerola and its processed products

Acerola is now commercially produced and processed in Brazil. Known for its very high vitamin C content, this fruit is also a good source of β‐carotene. The present study was carried out to verify variation in the carotenoid composition along the food chain. Neoxanthin, violaxanthin, lutein, β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene and β‐carotene were found in the acerola fruit. β‐Carotene predominated with mean concentrations of 12.4 and 38.1 µg g^?1 in the ripe fruit, 8.8 and 30.1 µg g^?1 in the peeled ripe fruit and 5.4 and 12.0 µg g^?1 in the partially ripe fruit of an undefined variety taken from home gardens and the commercial cultivar Olivier, respectively. Aside from β‐carotene, β‐cryptoxanthin increased significantly in both garden and commercial fruits and violaxanthin in the latter fruits during ripening. Peeling reduced β‐carotene in both garden and commercial lots, violaxanthin decreased in the commercial fruits, and the other carotenoids remained virtually unchanged. Four brands of frozen pulp and three brands of processed juice had variable and markedly lower carotenoid levels than those of the fresh fruit, indicating that the processing should be improved. Copyright © 2006 Society of Chemical Industry     

Pigments in Greek virgin olive oils: occurrence and levels

Fifty‐two samples of virgin olive oil from various regions of Greece were examined for the presence and levels of chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments using normal phase liquid chromatography and spectrometry. Pheophytin α (Pheo α) was the main pigment in all the oils examined (>10 mg kg^?1 in more than 70% of samples). Two pheophytin α derivatives (peaks A and B), eluted close to Pheo α, may potentially be used to examine handling conditions and length of storage of oil until analysis. Analysis of 25 Greek commercial oils obtained from retail stores verified the above observations. Chlorophyll α may be present in a virgin olive oil just after production. Its absence should not be exclusively attributed to cultivar characteristics or extraction conditions, since pheophytinisation occurs rapidly. Lutein content varied between 0.2 and 3.9 mg kg^?1 and β‐carotene content from 0.4 to 5.1 mg kg^?1. The lutein/β‐carotene ratio was characteristic (<1) for samples from Koroneiki, the major Greek cultivar for oil production. The total Pheo α (Pheo α + peak A + peak B)/total carotenoid (lutein + β‐carotene) ratio ranged between 2 and 11 owing to prevailing green hues. This ratio may be used as an indicator of oil typicality along with other analytical parameters. © 2001 Society of Chemical Industry     

Carotenoids are Effective Inhibitors of in vitro Hemolysis of Human Erythrocytes,as Determined by a Practical and Optimized Cellular Antioxidant Assay

β‐Carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein, β‐cryptoxanthin, and lycopene are liposoluble pigments widely distributed in vegetables and fruits and, after ingestion, these compounds are usually detected in human blood plasma. In this study, we evaluated their potential to inhibit hemolysis of human erythrocytes, as mediated by the toxicity of peroxyl radicals (ROO?). Thus, 2,2′‐azobis (2‐methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride (AAPH) was used as ROO? generator and the hemolysis assay was carried out in experimental conditions optimized by response surface methodology, and successfully adapted to microplate assay. The optimized conditions were verified at 30 × 10⁶ cells/mL, 17 mM of AAPH for 3 h, at which 48 ± 5% of hemolysis was achieved in freshly isolated erythrocytes. Among the tested carotenoids, lycopene (IC₅₀ = 0.24 ± 0.05 μM) was the most efficient to prevent the hemolysis, followed by β‐carotene (0.32 ± 0.02 μM), lutein (0.38 ± 0.02 μM), and zeaxanthin (0.43 ± 0.02 μM). These carotenoids were at least 5 times more effective than quercetin, trolox, and ascorbic acid (positive controls). β‐Cryptoxanthin did not present any erythroprotective effect, but rather induced a hemolytic effect at the highest tested concentration (3 μM). These results suggest that selected carotenoids may have potential to act as important erythroprotective agents by preventing ROO?‐induced toxicity in human erythrocytes.     

Changes in pigment profile and surface colour of fig (Ficus carica L.) during drying

In this study, anthocyanins in three fresh fig varieties (Ficus carica L.) cultivated in Turkey were characterised and quantified by HPLC/DAD and HPLC/MS. In addition, the carotenoid composition of Sar?lop and Sar?zeybek, yellow fig varieties, was determined, and then the ripening‐ and drying‐related changes in carotenoids and surface colour of figs were monitored during conventional sun‐drying. Four different anthocyanins, cyanidin‐3‐glucoside, cyanidin‐3,5‐diglucoside, cyanidin‐3‐rutinoside (major anthocyanin) and pelargonidin‐3‐glucoside, were identified in samples. Lutein, zeaxanthin, β‐cryptoxanthin and β‐carotene were carotenoids in yellow fig varieties. Approximately 80% of carotenoid compounds in yellow fig varieties degraded at the end of drying (i.e. seventh day). L (lightness), a (redness and greenness) and b (yellowness and blueness) colour parameters were measured by Hunter Lab system. Great changes in carotenoid composition and surface colour were observed at ripening stage on tree. A significant reduction in L and b values that refers to browning in figs was made in the first 3 days of drying process.     

Possible nutritional and health‐related value promotion in orange juice preserved by high‐pressure treatment

Effects of high‐pressure treatment on the orange juice carotenoids (β‐carotene, α‐carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein and β‐cryptoxanthin) associated with nutritional (vitamin A) and health‐related (radical‐scavenging capacity) values were investigated. Various high‐pressure treatments (50–350 MPa) combined with different temperatures (30 and 60 °C) and times (2.5, 5 and 15 min) of treatment were assayed. The carotenoid content of the orange juice was analysed by HPLC‐UV, the vitamin A value was determined as retinol equivalents (RE) and the free radical‐scavenging capacity was evaluated using the DPPH (2,2‐diphenyl‐1,1‐picrylhydrazyl) radical model system. A storage study was carried out at refrigeration temperature (4 °C). High‐pressure treatments at 350 MPa produced significant increases of 20–43% in the carotenoid content of fresh orange juice (from 3.99 to 4.78–5.70 mg l^?1). A non‐uniform behaviour of high‐pressure treatments was detected. An increase in time (beyond 5 min) or temperature (above 30 °C) of treatment did not improve the amount of carotenoids extracted. Owing to better extraction of carotenoids, an increase in vitamin A value from 164 to 238 RE l^?1 (45%) was achieved with the 350 MPa/30 °C/5 min treatment. No correlation was found between the increase in carotenoid amount extracted and the free radical‐scavenging activity. © 2002 Society of Chemical Industry     

Relationship Between Grain Hardness and Malting Quality of Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.)

In a three‐year period, protein content, polysaccharides and values of the selected malting parameters were determined in 12 varieties of barley. Hardness was assessed using the particle size index (PSI) and a Do‐Corder apparatus (BRA). Significant differences in the levels of hardness between the varieties were detected. Hardness was affected by variety from 37% (PSI) and 71% (BRA). Significant correlations were determined between the PSI and extract content (0.64^***), Kolbach index (0.66^***), friability (0.57^***), β‐glucans in wort (?0.51^***) and colour of malt (0.57^***). Significant correlations were found between BRA and content of non‐starch polysaccharides in caryopses (0.64^***), extract (?0.62^***), Kolbach index (?0.70^***), friability (?0.70^***), β‐glucans in wort (0.79^***) and wort colour (?0.56^***). Correlation was determined between hardness and malting quality index (PSI 0.51^***, BRA ?0.71^***).     

Carotenoids in yellow‐ and red‐fleshed papaya (Carica papaya L)

Vitamin A deficiency is a disorder of public health importance in Sri Lanka. A recent national survey revealed that 36% of preschool children in Sri Lanka have vitamin A deficiency (serum retinol <0.2 µg ml^?1). In view of its well‐established association with child morbidity and mortality, this is a reason for concern. One of the main fruits which has been recommended for prevention of vitamin A deficiency in Sri Lanka is papaya (Carica papaya L). In this study the carotenoid profiles of yellow‐ and red‐fleshed papaya were analysed by medium‐pressure liquid chromatography (MPLC) and UV‐vis spectrophotometry. A section of yellow‐fleshed papaya showed small carotenoid globules dispersed all over the cell, whereas in red‐fleshed papaya the carotenoids were accumulated in one large globule. The major carotenoids of yellow‐fleshed papaya were the provitamin A carotenoids β‐carotene (1.4 ± 0.4 µg g^?1 dry weight (DW)) and β‐cryptoxanthin (15.4 ± 3.3 µg g^?1 DW) and the non‐provitamin A carotenoid ζ‐carotene (15.1 ± 3.4 µg g^?1 DW), corresponding theoretically to 1516 ± 342 µg kg^?1 DW mean retinol equivalent (RE). Red‐fleshed papaya contained the provitamin A carotenoids β‐carotene (7.0 ± 0.7 µg g^?1 DW), β‐cryptoxanthin (16.9 ± 2.9 µg g^?1 DW) and β‐carotene‐5,6‐epoxide (2.9 ± 0.6 µg g^?1 DW), and the non‐provitamin A carotenoids lycopene (11.5 ± 1.8 µg g^?1 DW) and ζ‐carotene (9.9 ± 1.1 µg g^?1 DW), corresponding theoretically to 2815 ± 305 µg kg^?1 DW mean RE. Thus the carotenoid profile and organisation of carotenoids in the cell differ in the two varieties of papaya. This study demonstrates that carotenoids can be successfully separated, identified and quantified using the novel technique of MPLC. Copyright © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

An evaluation of carotenoid levels and composition of glabrous canaryseed

Nineteen glabrous canaryseeds comprising brown- and yellow-coloured varieties were investigated to determine carotenoid content and their properties. Total carotenoid content of canaryseeds ranged from 7.57 to 11.69 mg/kg. β-Carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin were the major carotenoids of glabrous canaryseed. β-Carotene ranged from 5291 to 6273, 4564 to 5352, and 3651 to 4428 μg/kg while lutein ranged from 2667 to 3370, 1532 to 3007, and 2042 to 2299 μg/kg, respectively in canaryseed flour, wholemeal and bran. Zeaxanthin was relatively low (?650 μg/kg). High β-carotene levels distinguished glabrous canaryseeds from other cereal crops as potential ingredients for carotenoid-enriched functional foods.     

THE COMPOSITION AND VITAMIN A VALUE OF THE CAROTENOIDS OF PUMPKINS OF DIFFERENT COLORS

The carotenoid pigments of the yellow and orange flesh varieties of the pumpkins Cucurbita moschata and C.maxima were identified and quantified, α-Carotene, β-carotene, ζ-carotene, β-carotene 5,6-epoxide, β-cryptoxanthin, lutein, taraxanthin, zeaxanthin, luteoxanthin and auroxanthin were detected in the pumpkins. The difference was that the yellow variety of C. moschata had no zeaxanthin. The quantitative patterns of the two varieties were similar. Although some quantitative variation was observed, lutein, β-carotene and luteoxanthin predominated. The difference in the color between the two varieties resulted from these quantitative differences in carotenoid composition. The vitamin A activity of the C. moschata variety with yellow flesh was higher than that of the C. maxima, which had many oxygenated carotenoids.     

Carotenoids in pungent and non‐pungent peppers at various developmental stages grown in the field and glasshouse

Carotenoids in edible portions of plants can provide health benefits to humans. How growing conditions affect levels of carotenoids in pepper fruits as they mature is not well known. Five cvs of bell pepper (Bell Captain, Melody, North Star, Ranger, Red Beauty) and five cvs of pungent‐type peppers (Anaheim, Ancho, Cayenne, Pimento, Red Cherry) were grown in a glasshouse and in the field. Fruits were harvested at the green, turning (50% green) and mature red stages and analysed for levels of the carotenoids β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene, β‐carotene, capsanthin, lutein and zeaxanthin and totals of these carotenoids. Levels of provitamin A: retinol equivalents (RE) were derived from levels of β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene and β‐carotene. Levels of most carotenoids and RE were significantly higher in glasshouse‐grown plants, and most were higher in fruits at the red stage. Fruits of Ancho type had the most β‐cryptoxanthin, α‐carotene, β‐carotene, total carotenoids and RE, while fruits of Red Cherry type had the most capsanthin and zeaxanthin, and fruits of Bell Captain had the most lutein. Interactions of the main effects variables, ie location of production (field vs glasshouse), stage of development and cultivar, indicated differences in patterns of carotenoid levels and RE. The data indicated that growing conditions influenced carotenoid levels. The more consistent and protected conditions in the glasshouse may have caused carotenoid levels to be increased, especially at the red stage. Published in 2002 for SCI by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd     

Provitamin‐A and xanthophyll carotenoids in vegetables and food grains of nutritional and medicinal importance

This study reports carotenoid composition of vegetables (n = 56), cereals (n = 12), pulses and legumes (n = 12), analysed by HPLC. It was hypothesised that food grains, like vegetables may be good sources of carotenoids. Amongst vegetables, higher level (mg/100 g dry weight) of lutein (210–419) was detected in green/red/capsicum and yellow zucchini, whilst zeaxanthin was dominant in kenaf (4.59). β‐Carotene (mg/100 g dry weight) was higher in green capsicum and kenaf (48,159) whilst carrot, ivy gourd and green capsicum contain α‐carotene (22–110). Amongst food grains, chickpea, split red gram and flaxseed contain higher levels (μg/100 g dry weight) of lutein (185–200) whilst zeaxanthin level was highest in puffed chickpea (1.8). Red unpolished parboiled rice was richest (μg/100 g dry weight) in β‐carotene (67.6) whilst whole black gram contained higher levels of α‐carotene (52.7). Thus, results indicate that chickpea and red unpolished parboiled rice are good sources of carotenoids. These carotenoid‐rich vegetables and grains may be exploited to meet the lutein and β‐carotene requirement.     

Effect of capsaicin from red pepper (Capsicum sp) on the deposition of carotenoids in egg yolk

The objective of this study was to compare the deposition of carotenoids in egg yolk in the presence of different levels of capsaicin in the diet of hens. A yellow corn basal diet was prepared and corresponded to the control treatment; the other five treatments were with red carotenoids as follows: Oleoresin and Biored (commercial unsaponified and saponified extracts of red pepper respectively) and three with red pepper meal (Guajillo) with different levels of capsaicin (0.76, 12.26 and 35.26 mg kg⁻¹ diet). The level of total carotenoids was 20–25 mg kg⁻¹ diet in the five treatments. The total carotenoids in egg yolks (30 ± 0.34 mg kg⁻¹) of red pepper diets with three levels of capsaicin were not statistically different. However, the carotenoid content was lower in egg yolks of commercial preparations (saponified, 26 ± 0.86 mg kg⁻¹; unsaponified, 24 ± 0.85 mg kg⁻¹). The highest level of capsaicin had a significant effect on the deposition of capsanthin and zeaxanthin during the 3 weeks of feeding. For the commercial saponified preparation (Biored) and the unsaponified pepper in the presence of capsaicin the colour obtained was the one preferred by the consumer (9.34 ± 0.05). Oleoresin was a poor pigment. It is concluded that capsaicin had a positive effect on the deposition of carotenoids in egg yolk without affecting the productivity parameters. © 1999 Society of Chemical Industry     

Models to predict dry feed intake in Holstein calves to 4 months of age

Voluntary daily dry feed intake (DFI) in Holstein calves was predicted using 60,761 individual daily observations collected from 1,235 Holstein calves in 30 experiments from 4 research stations in the United States and Europe. Consumption of dry feed (calf starter and hay, kg/d or percent of body weight) was measured from 3 to 114 d of age. Linear models and 2- and 3-parameter nonlinear models were evaluated to predict DFI using age of calf, intake of milk replacer, ambient temperature, percent forage, and neutral detergent fiber concentration in ration dry matter (DM) as independent variables. The initial data set was randomly divided within study location into development (80% of all observations) and validation data sets, and initial screening was conducted using the development data set. Five nonlinear models and 3 linear models (candidate models) were identified and used in further model evaluation. Cross-validation studies (n = 20) with the validation data set were conducted by linear regression of DFI with predicted DFI as independent variable. Candidate models were subsequently evaluated with data from 12 published studies in 2 analyses. The exponential model that best predicted daily DFI in Holstein calves in original and external data sets was DFI (kg/d) = 1.3207 × e^{[(?5.3892 + 0.6376 × MEgap) × EXP(?0.0392 × Age)]} – 0.0013 × Temp + 0.0032 × NDFDM + 0.0026 × Age × MEgap – 0.3646 × PctForage [coefficient of determination (R²) = 0.92, concordance correlation coefficient (CCC) = 0.96, and mean square error of prediction (MSEP) = 0.10 kg]; where MEgap (Mcal/d) = difference of daily metabolizable energy (ME) requirement and ME intake from milk replacer; Age = age of calf (d) from 3 to 114, Temp = mean daily ambient temperature (°C), NDFDM = ration neutral detergent fiber (% DM); PctForage = percent forage in ration DM. The linear model that best predicted DFI was DFI (kg/d = ?0.1349 + 0.0106 × Age + 0.1808 × MEgap + 0.0013 × Age × MEgap + 0.0001 × Temp + 0.00002 × Age × Temp (R² = 0.93, CCC = 0.96, and MSEP = 0.10 kg). When Temp and ration characteristics were not included, optimal models were 1.4362 × e^{[(?4.6646 + 0.5234 × MEgap) × EXP(?0.0361 × Age)]} + 0.0025 × Age × MEgap (R² = 0.92, CCC = 0.96, and MSEP = 0.11 kg) and ?0.1344 + 0.0102 × Age + 0.1810 × MEgap + 0.0013 × Age × MEgap [R² = 0.93, CCC = 0.96, and MSEP = 0.10 kg]. Models of daily DFI may improve prediction of nutrient supply to young Holstein calves to approximately 4 mo of age, thereby increasing prediction of growth performance.     

Evaluation of garlic ecotypes for allicin and other allyl thiosulphinates

An aqueous extraction method coupled with ultra performance liquid chromatography with photo diode array detection was optimised and validated for screening of 93 garlic ecotypes for allicin and other allyl thiosulphinate contents. Variability in allicin, allyl methyl thiosulphinate and allyl trans-1-propenyl thiosulphinate was observed both on fresh and dry weight basis. Bulb to bulb variation for allicin levels was less in clonal selections followed by commercial varieties, exotic line and landraces, respectively. Five ecotypes on fresh weight basis and all the ecotypes on dry weight basis had allicin contents more than the recommended pharmacological values (?4.5 mg g⁻¹). Cluster analysis and principal component analysis results revealed that geographical origin, breeding status and colour did not play any role in ecotype clustering. This study is useful as a base for selection of garlic ecotypes as a dependable raw material source for pharmaceutical and food processing industries.     

Waste from peach (Prunus persica) processing used for optimisation of carotenoids ethanolic extraction

The processing of peaches to produce fruit pulp generates solid and liquid wastes rich in phytochemicals, such as carotenoids; thus, the objective of this work was to study the use of this waste for carotenoid extraction based on a complete experimental design and using response surface methodology. The parameters studied were the amount of solvent (20–50 mL), the number of extractions (1–5) and the extraction time (10–30 min). The extracts were analysed by spectrophotometry and the optimised conditions by HPLC. The optimised results were four extractions of 10 min using 38.5 mL of ethanol, which presented a yield of 168.59 μg g^?1 DW of total carotenoids of which 67.55 μg g^?1 corresponds to β‐carotene, 86.75 μg g^?1 to cryptoxanthin, 12.08 μg g^?1 to zeaxanthin and 2.2 μg g^?1 to lutein, which representing 66% of extraction pigments relative to the total content of carotenoids present in the peach waste.     

Metabolomic Profiling of Carotenoid Constituents in Physalis peruviana During Different Growth Stages by LC‐MS/MS Technology

With the current ongoing changes in global food demands, natural carotenoids are preferred by consumers and are gaining attention among food scientists and producers alike. Metabolomic profiling of carotenoid constituents in Physalis peruviana during distinct on‐tree growth stages was performed with liquid chromatography‐tandem mass spectrometry (LC‐MS/MS) technology. The results show that the β rings of β‐carotene are hydroxylated with great efficiency, and there is a continual synthesis of zeaxanthin at half‐ripe and full‐ripe stages, which is confirmed by relating the zeaxanthin content to that of its precursor (β‐carotene). Lutein was, in terms of mass intensity, the most abundant carotenoid constituent (64.61 µg/g at the half‐ripe stage) observed in this study. In addition, γ‐carotene, which is rare in dietary fruits and vegetables, was detected in the mature and breaker stages, albeit at a relatively low level. The results suggest that when we consider the variation in carotenoid content during different growth stages, Physalis peruviana can be considered a good source of natural carotenoids.     

Impact of dietary carotenoid and packaging during frozen storage on the quality of rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) fed carotenoids

BACKGROUND: The storage life of frozen salmonids is often limited primarily by oxidation and flesh discolouration due to carotenoid degradation. The objective of this research was to determine the carotenoid changes and therefore the muscle colour modifications during 6 months of frozen storage (?18 °C) of whole rainbow trout fed astaxanthin (100 ppm) or canthaxanthin (80 ppm), kept under two different packagings: plastic film and cardboard box. RESULTS: After 6 months of frozen storage, the carotenoid type effect was seen for dry matter while there was no packaging material effect on carotenoid, total lipids, and TBARS contents of trout fillets. The time under frozen storage had an effect on carotenoid and TBARS fillet concentration. The carotenoid‐type effect was noted for the four colour parameters (lightness difference, chroma difference, hue angle difference, and total colour difference) of rainbow trout fillet, while the packaging material effect was observed only for chroma. Frozen storage time had an effect on the four colour parameters of rainbow trout fillet. CONCLUSION: Carotenoid and packaging material effects were more marked for colour parameters than for biochemical parameters. In this study, as fish were frozen and stored as whole fish, fish skin provided good protection against oxidation. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry